through them; but, there will inevitably be a considerable number of disabled men whose abilities will never be out of the ordinary. In order to secure an employment for these, various legislation has been proposed.

For five years after the war (Appendix G-45a), all positions, which it is shown by training and examination, that they can adequately fill (Appendix G-44, G-45) will be reserved for disabled men and their dependents (Appendix G-47), not only in governmental departments, but also in companies enjoying public concessions or subsidies; the number of men who are expected to receive governmental appointments is very considerable. Preference will be given to those who have large families and definite procedure is to be drawn up to give effect to the law. They will constitute about two-tenths per cent. of those wounded. There is no intention to give disabled men governmental employment which they are incapable of performing; to do so would give them no permanent advantage and would subject them to the contempt of their fellows. Propositions for laws further-reaching than this have been made; it has been suggested that all engagements under which working-men were employed shall be considered to have been merely suspended, not broken, by the war (Appendix G-51); it has also been suggested that all factories should be compelled to reserve a percentage of their employment for disabled men and that commissions established in each district should decide both what that percentage should be and the rate at which disabled men should be paid (Appendix G-46); there is little possibility that these latter proposals will be adopted.

Many of the societies supported by private effort and subscriptions have been active in finding employment for disabled men (Appendix D, introduction), and various official bodies have moved in the same direction.

It is now thought to be most undesirable to establish any system by which occupation will be offered to, or sought by, wounded men as a distinct class. It is felt that if employment bureaus are maintained for the use of disabled men alone, it will inevitably result in the wounded being treated as a special, necessarily

an inferior, class and that they will consequently be in danger of being offered a lessened wage. For that reason, it has been planned to extend and use the employment bureaus already established by the Minister of Labor for both disabled and sound men. In addition, the 'Office National de Placement des Réformés et Mutilés de la Guerre' (Appendix A-14) will, perhaps, be entrusted with handling the employment of disabled men in government positions and in Paris; and small employment bureaus where offers of employment will be received and filled, will probably be maintained, for their own use, at each of the centers of re-education.

At the outbreak of war there was no complete system of labor bureaus in France. Although a law passed in 1904 had made it obligatory for municipalities of more than 10,000 inhabitants to establish a municipal employment agency and for other communities to open a register of situations offered and wanted; only one hundred labor bureaus had actually been established.

The stoppage of industry at the commencement of hostilities made idle about two million workers in France; to them were added about one million persons, refugees from Belgium and from the invaded French Departments. The advantage which might be drawn in France from a proper system of labor bureaus was emphasized by the useful results obtained from the temporary agencies established, in this emergency, to find occupation for this enormous number of unemployed persons.

At the end of the war, it is expected that there will be many discharged soldiers without occupation; to their numbers will be added thousands who will be thrown out of employment by the closing of the munition factories. Some machinery must be provided for securing employment for these persons as well as for those who have been disabled by injuries received during the war. Whatever machinery be adopted, it must have branches throughout the country and these branches must be in close touch with one another. It is intended that the employment bureaus, already provided for by the law of 1904, shall be opened in every community. In each Department a central bureau is to act as an exchange for coordinating the work of all the bureaus in

that Department. At the end of December, 1915, the Minister of Labor desired the Prefect of each Department to establish a system of employment bureaus in his Department (Appendix F-30); the cost of maintaining them will be borne by the Minister of Labor. The plan upon which they are being organized has been inspired, in part, by the success of the British Labor Exchanges, (Appendix G-3); until they are established the Prefects have been instructed (Appendix G-32) to use existing employment bureaus in providing employment for returned soldiers. The Minister of Labor has also instructed his factory and other inspectors to assist the bureaus in their work by keeping them informed of establishments which are willing to give employment to ex-soldiers.

The operations of all bureaus occupied in finding employment for disabled men will be under the control of the Office National des Réformés et Mutilés de la Guerre (Appendix A-13). As time goes on, it is probable that the private societies, at present, attempting to find employment for ex-soldiers will gradually disappear, both because of official discouragement, and because of a gradual subsidence of the present keen public interest in the welfare of disabled men.

The Office National des Réformés et Mutilés de la Guerre is a permanent body; one of its duties is constantly to occupy itself with watching all matters affecting the interests of men disabled in the war. There will be much for it to do. One of the matters requiring constant examination is the occupations which might be followed by the disabled; it is certain that thought and experience, coupled with the modification of manufacturing routine or of existing machinery, will result in the opening up to men, lacking the use of legs or arms, of many occupations at present closed to them.

One industry in which official foresight is placing many disabled men is the manufacture of orthopedic appliances. The existence in France of perhaps fifty thousand men who will wear, and will require repairs for, prosthetic appliances of various sorts gives an opportunity for the creation of an important new industry. An artificial limb must usually be renewed at the end of a few years; in the meantime it requires

repairs. That the manufacture of artificial limbs is a profitable industry is evident from the fact that they are sold, at the current prices-between 200 and 250 francs for an artificial arm-for about three times the cost of their production. Considerable numbers of men are being trained as manufacturing orthopedists at the centers of re-education (Appendix A-3, A-10); it is well that this is so, if France is to keep the supply of artificial limbs for her wounded in her own hands, because, already, German manufacturers of artificial limbs are sending out circulars touting for business in France!

The Government fully appreciates that France is, above all, an agricultural country. It does everything possible to direct discharged soldiers to occupations connected with the cultivation of the soil. The agricultural schools have been opened to them; and a law has been proposed (Appendix G-39) suggesting that the State should give to suitable disabled men financial assistance enabling them to acquire rural properties.

Soldiers who, often after a course of re-education, are ready to assume their chosen positions in civilian life will frequently require assistance in order that they may be established, ready for work, in their workshops or on their farms. The artisan will require tools, material, and money to secure his subsistence until his business is established; similarly, the farmer will require help in purchasing live stock, tools, and seeds before he can commence the cultivation of his land. At present, artisans can obtain small loans, without security, from various societies such as the 'Aide Immédiate aux Mutilés et Réformés de la Guerre' (Appendix D-2) or the 'Association pour l'Assistance aux Mutilés pauvres' (Appendix C-1). Farmers are able to obtain assistance from various 'Land Banks'. As a rule, those who have passed through a center of re-education will not require so much assistance as those who have not done so. It is part of the policy of most centers to assist their pupils to earn and to save money, so that they may have a small capital when they leave (See page 30). In addition, some schools give their graduates an outfit of tools. It has been proposed that a special bank should be created for the

purpose of providing financial assistance for men who require it on re-entering civilian life.

There will inevitably be a comparatively small number of discharged soldiers who, although receiving pensions, will be incapable of looking after themselves entirely. It is the policy to allow men of this sort to be cared for, as much as possible, in the families of their relations or friends; their pension will be sufficient to bear the cost of their maintenance. Consequently, although institutional treatment may be necessary for some-violent maniacs, etc.-there will be no necessity for the establishment of old soldiers' homes. Indeed, it is anticipated, were such homes established, that there would be few men who would consent to enter them. The vast majority of the present armies are men accustomed to home life; the soldiers for whom a past generation established 'homes', like the 'Invalides', were professional soldiers who had spent most of their lives in barracks and had never had a home of their own.

It is possible, also, that it may be necessary for the State to establish a few institutions, maintained at a loss, in which disabled soldiers, incapable of earning a livelihood in commercial life, may be able to obtain a decent return for the labor of which they are capable. There is little to recommend workshops of this nature.8 They can rarely engage in an important industry for fear of being accused of unjustly competing with private enterprise; they are expensive and, from their very nature, it is impossible for their atmosphere to be anything but depressing (Appendix A-2; Appendix G-19-20). Certainly, they will not be established before the need for them is pressing.

Already two societies have been formed among disabled soldiers. They are the 'Union Fraternelle des Mutilés et Convalescents' and 'La Mutuelle des Blessés de la Guerre'. The first of these societies was organized to help exsoldiers to obtain employment and to give assistance to those who are out of work.

It

* In order to supply occupation for disabled men who cannot possibly work in commercial workshops it may be necessary to establish special workshops. This will probably be necessary for epileptics and others suffering from major disabilities of the nervous system especially.

derives part of its funds, at least, from private benevolence. The second society has similar objects, but it is supported entirely by the subscriptions of its members. 'Aide et Protection, Société Nationale des Secours Mutuels entre tous les Mutilés, Blessés, et Réformés de la Guerre' has been established in Paris for the purpose of securing concerted action and mutual protection among disabled men. It is supported by members' fees and by accepting contributions by private benevolence. (Appendix G-79.) The 'Association Nationale des Mutilés de la Guerre' is another body with similar objects which has its head office at Paris. It is a powerful organization and has a very complete and ambitious program. (Appendix G-83, G-83a.)

At present, it is usually thought that there is no danger of ex-soldiers banding themselves in organized societies in order to secure privileged advantages by political action. It is possible, however, that certain individuals may endeavor, by generous subscriptions and other means, to secure a personal following among the members of such societies in order to further their own political ends. It is certain, none the less, that wounded men will be strong in insisting upon their rights; this fact constitutes an additional reason for securing an accurate appreciation in the national mind of exactly what those rights are.

When the war commenced, the compensation granted to soldiers and sailors for injuries received during their service was given in accordance with laws of long-standing, drawn up for dealing with men who were, in large part, professional soldiers and sailors (Appendix G-59, G-60, G-61). One of the most important of the Pension Laws is known as the Law of 1831.

The war had not lasted many months when it became apparent that the old laws did not fit present conditions and that it would be necessary to change them in order to make them meet modern needs; various measures have been proposed to that end. A most comprehensive scheme for the modification and readjustment of the Pension Laws has been brought forward by the Government (Appendix G-49). Its adoption

has been delayed because its provisions, in some respects, conflict with rights acquired by certain individuals under the old laws. It is, however, certain (Appendix E-18, etc.) that its main provisions will become law; and, whenever there is conflict with the old regulations, that the individuals concerned will be allowed to choose whether they will benefit under the old or the new law.

The principles underlying the pensions regulations are exactly those which form the foundation of the recommendations made in a Report of the Canadian Pensions and Claims Board sitting at Folkestone, England, to the Minister of Militia (Appendix F-36).

It is recognized that France is fighting a national war in which each citizen has an equal interest; it is, therefore, agreed that all detriments resulting from that war shall be equally distributed among Frenchmen.

There are many difficulties preventing complete realization of this principle in practice; but the intention to realize it, as far as possible, is evidenced in much recent legislation. For example, it has been decided that all losses suffered by those resident in the invaded French Provinces are to be made good by the State; again, much-discussed legislation is at present being passed through the Chambers with the intention of equalizing certain losses sustained in connection with real estate and rents in consequence of the war. Detailed mention of measures taken to secure the restitution of economic loss has no place here; the Pension Laws will be passed with the purpose of making good to disabled men. losses which they have suffered through physical or mental detriment so that they shall not suffer more from the war than every Frenchman must. Because men, medically unfit for service and discharged without pension (Réformés No. 2) required support, even although their disability was the result of disease not due to military service, it seems probable that temporary living allowances will be made to such men until, under the new law, they either receive pensions or become self-supporting. (Appendix G-73). The unfairness of contributing nothing toward the support of men who have broken down in

service, although their disease was not originated by service, has become apparent.

It is agreed that pensions are to be awarded to disabled men in direct proportion to the bodily incapacity resulting from disease or injury caused by their service. The degree of incapacity resulting from a given injury is estimated with the assistance of the 'Guide-barême des Invalidités' (Appendix G-31); this 'Disability Table' has been drawn up by the Commission Consultative Médicale. It is largely based upon experience gained in the administration of the Workman's Compensation Act (Appendix G-62, G-63). It was composed because such a guide had been found to be absolutely necessary (Appendix E-25) in order to secure sound and uniform estimations of incapacity by the medical boards. Upon them is placed the responsibility of deciding the degree of incapacity existing in an injured man, and, consequently-since the amount of the pension depends directly upon the degree of the disability-of fixing the grade of pension to be awarded.

One or two incongruities in the table exist, because, in drawing it up, it was necessary to make it conform with the old pension laws; for example, the table, governed by the law of 1831, makes no distinction between the degrees of incapacity resulting from amputations of the arm above and below the elbow. (It is probable that in the pensions legislation such incongruities will be removed and that those who enlisted when former laws were in force will be permitted to choose under which code they benefit.)

The amount of the pension awarded depends entirely upon the degree of the disability. It is in no way influenced by social position or by previous earning power. A pension is the inalienable property of the individual to whom it is granted and it cannot be diminished by reason of any factor other than a lessening of the incapacity in respect of which it is granted.

A pension may be refused to a man whose incapacity is the result of an injury due to his own intentional act. In practice, although a man may legally refuse to submit to an operation involving the shedding of blood, an unreasonable refusal to accept a simple operation which would diminish his disability is made a reason for

estimating his incapacity at a lower rate than the existing disability would otherwise justify. It is also certain that, in the near future, the granting of a pension will, in some respect, become conditional upon the acceptance of professional re-education by those for whom re-education is held to be desirable.

A proposal to increase the amount of the existing French pensions has already been accepted (Appendix G-49; q.v.). It is probable that their value will be still further augmented in the laws finally adopted. The factor which will govern the amount eventually decided upon is that the pension granted in respect of a totally disabled man should be sufficient to secure a decent livelihood to him and to his family. (It is asserted that, in the country, a family owning their own house and a small plot of land can easily support-decently-a man, his wife, and four children on three francs a day.)

The compensations granted for injuries are of three sorts; a permanent pension granted for an incapacity which will not vary; a renewable pension granted for an incapacity which may become greater or less; and a gratuity, an assistance given once for all, to discharged soldiers, or to their dependents, who may require assistance and are not entitled to a pension.

It has been decided that governmental employees will be entitled only to whichever of the pensions will give them the greater benefit (Appendix G-50) when they have become entitled to pensions, as a result of injuries received during the war, both in the department in which they were formerly employed and under the regulations governing war pensions.

French pensions are, at present, paid quarterly, and in future they will probably be paid at shorter periods. Pensioners are often poor people, who live from hand to mouth. Consequently, it frequently happens that they find themselves without money before the next quarterly payment of their pension is due. Although it is illegal to lend money on pensions there are usurers who do so. It has been proposed (Appendix G-38) that a severe penalty be inflicted upon those found guilty of doing so. This law has been passed. (See Appendix G-38a.) This law prohibits advances of every description upon

the security of pension. Lender will be punished by imprisonment. Contracts made between claim agents and possible pensioners are null. The National Savings Bank shall have the right to make advances to pensioners. At the same time the temptation to borrow will be removed by permitting pensioners to obtain advances on their pension, under certain conditions, from the State through the Post Offices.

It is probable that this is the only respect in which anticipation or commutation of pension benefits will be permitted. It has, however, been proposed (Appendix G-39) that disabled men should be allowed to borrow money, on the security of their pension, from the State, on very generous terms-especially to married menin order that they might purchase and become the owners of the land upon which they settled.

XI. ESTABLISHMENT IN CIVILIAN LIFE:

INSURANCE

A disabled man is often more exposed, by reason of his disability, to accidents than one who is sound; an accident often results in a more serious incapacitation to a man disabled than it would in one who was whole; and, lastly, the injury which disables a man often results in a lessening of the length of time for which he might otherwise have been expected to live-his expectation of life.

The following examples will serve as illustrations of the preceding statements. A man who has lost one eye is evidently more exposed to accidents than is one who has two eyes and whose field of vision is consequently wider. If a oneeyed man loses the eye remaining to him the accident which deprives him of it leaves him, not one-eyed, but totally blind; therefore, the incapacity resulting from that accident is greater than it would have been in one who had been sound and had had two eyes. There is no doubt but that the expectation of life of those who have suffered from certain diseases, such as rheumatism, may be reduced thereby. For these reasons, all forms of accident and life insurance, or of annuities, or of any operation dependent in any detail upon averages calculated for sound men, will cost more than they normally should to disabled men.