to inquire into the causes, extent, and remedies of drunkenness. In the meantime the limitation of the pledge to abstinence from ardent spirits had proved a greater drawback than in other countries, because beer had for centuries been the popular beverage, and its use a cause of wide-spread drunkenness before ardent spirits were commonly sold. It was also an unfortunate coincidence that the Beer Act of 1830 had led to the opening of many thousands of new houses for the consumption of beer on the premises, and had aggravated the previous evils of the liquor traffic, contrary to the hopes of the framers of the bill, who thought it would diminish the use of ardent spirits and substitute for them 'good malt and hops which could injure nobody.'

·

Temperance societies on the anti-spirit basis had at the close of 1835 been established in all the British-American and Australian colonies, in India, the West Indies, the Sandwich Islands, the South Sea Islands, and in some continental countries, especially some parts of Germany and Sweden; and this continental movement was soon afterwards extended to Prussia, Russia, and Denmark. In British North America abstinence from all alcoholic beverages was common even under the old form of pledge, and on May 25, 1832, at St John, New Brunswick, a society was formed with a constitution expressly committing its members to abstinence from all intoxicating liquors, save as a medicine. It was, however, reserved for the Preston Temperance Society in England to apply such missionary power in the diffusion of the total abstinence principle as to justify for it the supremacy in the advocacy of the new reform. On September 1, 1832, seven members of the Preston society allowed Mr Joseph Livesey to attach their names to a pledge of total abstinence, and in later days it became common to speak of the seven men of Preston' as having commenced the new crusade. In fact, however, Mr Joseph Livesey was the only one of the seven who became greatly distinguished in this cause, his real Preston compeers being James Teare, Henry Anderton, Edward Grubb, Thomas Swindlehurst, and some others. The Preston society adopted both pledges, and it was not till 1835 that it resolved to make the total abstinence pledge a test of membership; but a Youths' Society had been formed in 1834 on the single basis of total abstinence. In the September of 1833, at one of the meetings of the Preston society, a working-man named Richard Turner, usually called 'Dicky Turner,' and who was a rough, humorous speaker, was insisting on the superiority of total abstinence over what was known as the 'moderation' system, and wishing to express himself very forcibly, he exclaimed, 'I'll be reet down out-and-out tee-tee-total for ever and ever. The audience cheered, and Mr Livesey said, 'This shall be the name of our new pledge.' Dicky did not stutter, and the reduplication of the in 'total' was simply an emphatic way of declaring his opinion. A conference of Lancashire and Cheshire societies was held at Manchester, September 24, 1834, when as a second pledge one of total abstinence was recommended; and at a second conference in Manchester, September 15 and 16, 1835, when thirty-one societies in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire were represented, it was agreed to form the British Association for the Promotion of Temperance-the first general society in England on the total abstinence basis.

The years 1835-45 were years of great activity in the temperance cause throughout the world. In the United States the system of total abstinence was universally adopted in place of the limited anti-spirit principle. The American Temperance Union, with state and local societies in great num

bers, continued the agitation, and laws affecting the liquor traffic were passed by several state legisla tures. The Washingtonian Reform, which originated in Baltimore in 1840, was specially designed to reclaim the intemperate, and in the space of a few years it was estimated to have induced a quarter of a million of such persons to take the pledge. In England the British and Foreign Temperance Society practically ceased to exist. It had done much good work in its earliest years, but it would never accept a total abstinence pledge, even as a second one. In London the New British and Foreign Temperance Society was formed in 1836. It had adopted two pledges, one of simple personal abstinence called the short pledge, the other of abstinence coupled with a promise not to give strong drink to others, called the long pledge; and the disputes on this point rose to such a height that in May 1839 a division took place. Both societies unfortunately ran into debt, and in November 1842 they dissolved in favour of a new one, the National Temperance Society. In 1844 it organised a metropolitan temperance mission. District and county associations were organised in various parts, and by slow degrees a sentiment in favour of total abstinence, accompanied by its practice, became diffused throughout English society. One special line of labour was diligently prosecuted by Mr John Dunlop, who had settled in London, namely a movement in opposition to drinking usages in trades, especially those of a compulsory character. In Scotland the temperance cause had revived under the abstinence system; and at Falkirk, November 5, 1844, the Scottish Temperance League was founded, an event followed shortly after by the dissolution of the Western Temperance Union. But it is to Ireland that we must look at this period (1838-45) for the most extraordinary exhibition of temperance progress which any age or country has witnessed within an equal space of time. The total abstinence cause, though having many active and generous friends, had but slightly influenced the Roman Catholic population; but in the April of 1838 Father Mathew (q.v.) in Cork signed the total abstinence pledge at the instance of William Martin, a Quaker of that city. It is said in some books that Father Mathew's success as a temperance reformer was immediate; but the truth is that his work did not acquire a remarkable momentum till about the middle of 1839. During the next three years he visited nearly every part of Ireland, including the north, and administered the pledge to millions of men and women. effect of his labours was visible in an enormous decrease in the consumption of spirits, as also in a lessening of drunkenness and the crimes arising out of it. In 1843 he visited England, giving the pledge to about 200,000 persons, including 60,940 in London. The first World's Temperance Convention, held in London in August 1846, was attended by 305 delegates, of whom twenty-eight were from the United States. It had been arranged by the National Temperance Society, which in 1856 was united with the London Temperance League. Since that date the N. T. League has been remarkably successful in carrying on temperance work among colleges and other educational bodies, as also in the army and royal navy. It has also held various congresses and conferences. By its means also various Nonconformist temperance societies have been formed. It has three organs-Temperance Record (weekly), Temperance Mirror (monthly), and Medical Temperance Journal (quarterly).

The

Although the temperance leaders in all places were almost invariably religious men, the great majority of Christian churches were not until of late years brought into recognised connection with the temperance movement. A ministerial temper

com

ance conference convened by the British Temperance Association was held in Manchester in 1848, and a declaration adopted by the conference afterwards received 583 ministerial signatures. Prior to this the Personal Abstinence Society of United Presbyterian ministers, elders, and students had been formed in 1845; and all the religious bodies in Scotland have now temperance societies associated with them. It is the same in England, where the Congregationalists, Baptists, Methodists of all kinds, and Presbyterians have denominational societies. The great majority of the ministers, and nearly the whole of the students, are now abstainers. A Church of England conference, held in 1862, led to the formation of the Church of England Society, with Dr F. Close, the Dean of Carlisle, as president. In 1868 Archdeacon Sandford secured the appointment of a mittee on intemperance by the Lower House of Convocation of the Province of Canterbury, and the valuable report of this committee was adopted in 1869, and widely circulated. It recommended among other things a legislative measure of local option on the ground of the excellent results arising from the exclusion of the drink traffic from numerous places in this province (upwards of 1400), by the will of the landowners. One important result of this report was the construction in 1873 of the Church of England Temperance Society on the dual basis, in order that, while total abstainers should form a distinct section, they should also be enabled to unite with non-abstainers desirous of diminishing sources of intemperance springing from social circumstances or legislation. By means of diocesan branches and a central executive much has been done to dispose the Established Church to take a more prominent part in temperance work, and the number of abstaining clergy and laity has probably increased sevenfold since 1873. The juvenile members of the society are all abstainers. The League of the Cross has been a means of promoting total abstinence among the Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom; and to Cardinal Manning's personal and official support this and other forms of temperance activity were greatly indebted.

The phrase Band of Hope' was first applied to juvenile societies in 1847, and under this felicitous title they have so greatly increased as to constitute a large department of the whole movement. It is estimated that upwards of two millions of young persons are embraced in Bands of Hope and other juvenile societies in the United Kingdom; and the United Kingdom Band of Hope Union-an extension of the London Band of Hope Union formed in 1855-is now one of the leading national organisations; and it initiated an effort to add a million more members to the societies in the single year 1891-92.

The abuses of friendly societies and benefit clubs by their connection with the public-house led to the formation of the Rechabite Order at Salford in 1835, and its members with those of the Sons of Temperance, and the Sons of the Phoenix (the last being almost confined to London), are numbered by many thousands. The order of Good Templars, which had long existed in America, was introduced into England by Mr Joseph Malins in 1868, and in less than seven years had so greatly spread through the United Kingdom as to number about a quarter of a million of members. A rupture in 1876, with other causes, made a large reduction in the membership, but the division has been healed, and the Good Templars throughout the world can still boast of a membership exceeding half a million. At the close of 1840 an institution was projected in London for insuring the lives of total abstainers. Seven years afterwards it was arranged to admit

119

non-abstainers into a separate section, so that both classes would get the full benefit of their respective longevity. This office, under the name of the United Kingdom Temperance and General Provident Institution, is now one of the largest in the country, with a capital of upwards of five millions sterling.

Woman's vital relation to home life renders her deeply interested in all that concerns its welfare, and not only have women taken a leading personal part in the temperance movement, but numerous societies composed of their own sex have existed, and the British Women's Temperance Association, formed in 1876, has a network of branches in Great Britain and some branches in Ireland. It also forms a part of the Women's World's Christian Temperance Union.

The United Kingdom Alliance for the Legislative Suppression of the Liquor Traffic was formed June 1, 1853. Its first president was Sir W. C. Trevelyan, and its agencies of all kinds have for their special object the election of members to parliament favourable to its policy, in order to a measure of legislation which would enable every district to decide by a direct vote of the local electors whether the liquor traffic should exist therein or not. A Permissive Prohibitory Bill was brought into the House of Commons by the present writer in March 1864, but though repeatedly reintroduced it never obtained a second reading. In June 1880, however, a Local Option Resolution was carried by a majority of twenty-six. In 1881 and 1883 further resolutions were carried by majorities of forty-two and eighty-seven. The Alliance News (weekly) has the largest circulation of any temperance journal in the British Isles. The Blue Ribbon or Gospel Temperance movement occasioned extraordinary public demonstrations and large additions to the pledge.

Although some eminent medical total abstainers had ceased to prescribe alcohol as a medicine on the ground that it was needless, since other agents could be used with equal or better effect, it was not till the October of 1873 that a temperance hospital was opened in London, in which, while the visiting medical staff are authorised to give alcohol when they deem it necessary, the ordinary rule is the treatment, medical and surgical, of cases without alcohol. Buildings costing upwards of £50,000 have since been erected, and, besides a large number of out-patients, more than 7700 inpatients have been treated, the rate of mortality being a little over 6 per cent. Many very important and critical cases have been treated with complete success, and alcohol has not been administered in more than a fraction of cases (less than a quarter per cent.).

In Scotland the cause has probably a stronger hold numerically and politically than in any other section of the United Kingdom. The Scottish Temperance League and the Scottish Permissive Bill and Temperance Association have their headquarters in Glasgow, where their weekly organs, the League Journal and Reformer, are published. In Ireland the effect of the terrible years of famine, 1846-49, and the bitterness of political strife have acted prejudicially on the temperance cause, but the Presbyterian Church and the Episcopal Church of Ireland contain, especially the former, great numbers of abstainers, and the Irish Temperance League and the Irish Association for the Prevention of Intemperance direct from their headquarters in Belfast and Dublin a variety of operations. In the Roman Catholic Church several of the archbishops and other dignitaries are conducting a temperance work in connection with their ecclesiastical regulations. The League of the Cross is also active in some places. The

TEMPERANCE

reply is that this was Liebig's theory, but was generally abandoned after the publication of the great essay of MM. Llemand, Perrin, and Duroy, whose experiments seem to show that alcohol was ejected from the system undecomposed. This position has in its turn been disputed; but there is no doubt that at least a portion of the alcohol imbibed leaves the system undecomposed. It is not certain what becomes of the rest, but the combustion theory is opposed to the facts, that heat is reduced and not increased after alcohol is imbibed, and that none of its derivatives have been discovered. (7) It is objected that the use of intoxicating drink is sanctioned by Scripture, by Christ's example, by the miracle at Cana, by the Lord's Supper, and by St Paul's advice to Timothy. The replies are (a) that the Scripture commendation of wine is limited to it as a natural product, but that whenever its intoxicating quality is noted it is always referred to with condemnation as a mocker,' a 'serpent,' a 'transgressor' and a ‘poison;' (b) that the example of Christ cannot be quoted on the side of strong drink unless it were known whether He used intoxicating drink, and to what extent, and that His true example is that of love to God and man, which is best exhibited by abstinence from drinks which are deceitful and destructive; (c) that the wine made at Cana would be innocent and not such as was condemned by the prophets, and that there is high patristic authority for assuming that the miracle consisted in hastening the natural process by which the water of the grape is converted into rich and nutritious juice; (d) that it is the fruit of the vine,' and not alcohol, which is to be used in the Lord's Supper; (e) that St Paul's advice was of a medical character; that Timothy's previous abstinence was not rebuked; and that St Paul has laid down the principle of the avoidance of that which is even useful in order to the preservation of our fellow men-a principle sufficient to justify total abstinence, even if alcoholic liquors were not physically injurious but beneficial.

On the question of the prohibition of the liquor traffic there has been much controversy. Its opponents have contended that it is an invasion of personal liberty; that even when imposed by a majority it is a violation of the rights of the minority; and that all that is really required is such a magisterial and police supervision as will repress drunkenness as much as possible, and inflict deterrent penalties on offenders. To this statement various answers are returned. With regard to the violation of personal liberty the prohibitionists maintain that in one sense all law interferes with liberty. A good law interferes with the liberty to do wrong. Therefore, they say, assuming that the common sale of drink wrongs the public, a law interfering with this wrong is in accord with true liberty. They hold that individual profit must be subservient to the public welfare, Salus populi suprema lex. If hardship is alleged as affecting the buyer, the statement of J. S. Mill is quoted, who declared that every artificial augmentation of the price of an article is prohibition to the more or less poor; yet there is hardly any government which does not in some way or other legislate so that the price of intoxicants is increased. As to the possibility of extirpating intemperance by means of strict regulation as to the sale of drink, the prohibitionists affirm that the existing system has been tried for hundreds of years, and often under the most favourable circumstances for its success, and that yet the licensing system, as judged by its fruits, is confessed to be a melancholy failure.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Only a few of the principal temperance works can here be named. Of a comprehensive

nature are the Curse of Britain, by Rev. W. R. Baker; Bacchus (Prize Essay), by Dr R. B. Grindrod; AntiBacchus, by Rev. B. Parsons; the works of Dr F. R. Lees; The Teetotaler's Companion, by Peter Burne; Nephalism, by Professor Miller; Bacchus Dethroned, by F. Powell; Bases of the Temperance Reform and Christendom and the Drink Curse, by Dr Dawson Burns; The Christian Church and the Temperance Reformation (Prize Essay), by Rev. James Smith; The Case for Total Abstinence (Prize Essay), by J. W. Lacey; Temperance Cyclopædia, by Dr W. Reid; the Founda tion of Death, by A. Gustafson. On the physiological aspect are The Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors, afterwards republished as The Physiology of Temperance and Total Abstinence (Prize Essay), by Dr W. B. Carpenter; Alcohol, its Place and Power, by Professor Miller; the Cantor Lectures on Alcohol, by Dr B. W. Richardson. On biblical criticism and the Bible wine question are the Temperance Bible Commentary, by Dr F. R. Lees and Dr Dawson Burns; the Practical Bible Temperance Commentary, by Rev. A. Stewart; Scripture Testimony, by Rev. Dr W. Ritchie; Wines Scriptural and Ecclesiastical, by Dr N. Kerr. The only volume on the other side is The Wines of the Bible, by Rev. A. M. Wilson. On temperance economics is Our National Resources and how they are wasted, by W. Hoyle; of history and biography there are Handbook of Temperance History, edited by Robert Rae; Temperance History, by Dr Dawson Burns; Temperance Workers and the Temperance Movement, by P. T. Winskill. For young persons there are Morning Dew Drops, by Mrs Balfour, the Lesson Book, by Dr B. W. Richardson, and the Temperance Primer, by Dr J. J. Ridge. On temperance legislation are the House of Commons' Select Committee's Report, 1834; The Argument for Prohibition (Prize Essay), by Dr Lees, and Dr Lees's Condensed Argument and Replies to One Hundred Objections; Reports of the Committees on Intemperance appointed by the Convocations of Canterbury and York; Local Option, by W. S. Caine, W. Hoyle, and Dr Dawson Burns. Among a multitude of American works, Senator H. W. Blair's History of the Temperance Reform, and The Liquor Problem in all Ages, by the Rev. Dr Daniel Dorchester, are of special value. Reports of various temperance conventions and congresses contain many valuable papers on all branches of the question. See also the articles ALCOHOLISM, INEBRIATES, LICENSING LAWS,

LIQUOR LAWs, and those on eminent advocates of tem

perance, such as Fulton, Mathew, George Cruikshank,

and Archdeacon Farrar.

Temperature is the thermal condition of a body which determines the interchange of heat between it and other bodies. Our first ideas of temperature are derived from our sensations of hot and cold. As explained under Heat (q.v.), the effect of adding heat to a body is to make it hotter, unless it is at its melting or boiling point. This rise of temperature is accompanied by volume changes, on which all our practical methods of measuring temperature depend (see THERMOMETER). Now, although the idea of temperature is familiar enough, its true significance is difficult to understand. So-called thermometric measurements of temperature are not measurements in the strict scientific sense of the term. They are simply the comparison of certain other effects which accompany change of temperature in special bodies. A scientific measure of temperature should be independent of any particular substance, and should depend solely upon the fundamental properties of heat itself. This absolute measure of temperature was first given by Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), who based his system on Carnot's thermodynamic cycle (see THERMODYNAMICS). The kinetic theory of Gases (q.v.) has given us a definition of temperature in terms of the kinetic energies of the molecules. The assumption is that the molecules are free from molecular forces; the conclusion is in agreement with Boyle's, Gay-Lussac's, and Charles's laws. As no gas obeys these laws rigorously, the inference is that intermolecular actions come into play, so that only part of the temperature can be