activity, while in others it will moderate excessive mental excitement. It will often correct the disagreeable effects of nervousness; while, on the other hand, it will likewise act as a laxative. The most noticeable characteristics perhaps are the effects of smoking on the nervous system in such cases as those in which it is upset by mental distress or anxiety. At the same time it must not be forgotten that there are persons whose nerves are disarranged and quite upset by smoking. By such people the habit should be tabooed altogether. Others again are only inconvenienced after an excess, while there are those who can stand any amount. Consequently, if the use of tobacco is ever to be governed by a single law, it will be by that of common sense. The amount to be consumed must be regulated by the individual who consumes it. Although even excess has never been known to originate a specific disease, still it reduces the system to a low condition, and unfits it to fight against ailments brought on by other causes. Until the system is near maturity, tobacco should be only lightly indulged in, or avoided in toto, as it acts prejudicially, even in small doses, in early life, and if used in excess is liable to have a permanent ill effect. The immediate effects of tobacco poisoning are very transitory, and they soon work off.

The usual effects of an overdose of tobacco are faintness, nausea, giddiness, general relaxation of the muscular system, loss of power of the limbs, cold perspiration, and vomiting. In some cases there is purging, and in others a sense of sinking or depression in the region of the heart. Attendant on these symptoms are a dilation of the pupils, dimness of sight, weak pulse, and difficulty of breathing. In mild cases a little stimulant and fresh air are the best remedies. Some of these disturbances of the functions are occasionally felt by the inveterate smoker, who also is liable to suffer from what is known as 'smoker's sore throat.' This makes itself evident by an irritable state of the mucous membrane at the back of the throat, with dryness, producing a tendency to cough and an enlarged, soft, sore condition of the tonsils, which renders it painful to swallow. It may exist without detection for a long time; but if a damp, cold, foggy state of the air arises, the throat becomes troublesome and painful, enlargement of the tonsils is detected, and the symptoms become much aggravated by any attempt to smoke. When smoking is altogether suspended it soon disappears, but it is incurable while the habit is persisted in, although the more troublesome symptoms may be temporarily alleviated.

The combustion of tobacco in smoking is never a complete one. While there are large quantities of carbonic acid and water-the ultimate products of complete organic combustion-produced, there are also many organic substances which are formed or become released by the heat, and which distil over with the gaseous bodies. It is the condensation of these volatile substances in very minute particles, in a similar manner to the condensation of steam at the kettle spout, which gives rise to the appearance of smoke. The colour of the smoke is dependent on the quantity of these substances present, and the rapidity with which they are condensed. The burning of tobacco should be free, with a clean ash, but not too rapid. If it is retarded from any cause, such as the improper fermentation of the leaf, or by containing the wrong mineral constituents, then objectionable products are obtained which possess both a disagreeable taste and odour. Moreover, carbonic oxide a distinctly poisonous gas-is produced in considerable amount. All these substances tend to create the unpleasantness so often experienced

231

with a badly burning cigar. A large proportion of the nicotine is consumed or destroyed in the burning, the ratio depending on the freeness or completeness of the combustion. The bulk of it, therefore, is not absorbed into the system, as some would make out. Indeed, it is impossible for it to be so, as one ordinary cigar contains enough nicotine to poison two men. A tenth of a grain will kill a medium-sized dog, so that a quarter of an ounce of mild tobacco would contain sufficient to poison twenty or thirty of these animals. The other principal products of the burning are ammonia and its compounds, an empyreumatic oil, and a dark, bitter, resinous substance. The first named is very objectionable both to taste and smell if in undue proportion. The last two are very evident, the former in the odour of stale tobacco, and the other in the bitter taste of the oil in the stem of a foul pipe, and both largely impregnate the smoke. These organic substances begin to be deposited directly they are formed, so that some remains in the mouth, and if the smoke is swallowed or passed through the nostrils much more will be retained and absorbed into the system certainly an undesirable result.

It will be quite evident that the least harmful method of smoking is the use of a long pipe made of an absorbing material, such as clay or meerschaum. After this a short pipe, then the cigar and cigarette. In the progress of smoking a cigar the oils, &c. partly become condensed in it, and at the same time driven farther along until the end becomes nearly saturated with them. This end piece is often consumed with great eagerness and relish, but it is the most harmful part, and is liable to produce dyspepsia, especially with an empty stomach. The specifically deleterious effects sometimes due to cigarette-smoking may depend on poisonous substances used in preparing the cigarettepapers. The best time for smoking is unquestionably after a meal, and it should not be indulged in immediately before one. The habit of snuff-taking is perhaps the least harmful of the varied uses of tobacco, as the amount consumed must be within reasonable limit. Chewing, on the other hand, is doubtless the most deleterious. Owing to the rapid growth of cigarette-smoking, laws had been passed, up to 1891, in about three-fourths of the United States prohibiting smoking by youths.

Although on its introduction into Europe the cultivation of the plant was advocated on account of its medicinal virtues, it is now very little used for them. It has been found effective in spasmodic cases, but at the present time there is only one preparation in the British Pharmacopoeia-an infusion of the leaf in water-and this is rarely used. Nicotine is an antidote in poisoning by strychnine, and vice versa strychnine will act as an antidote to nicotine. An infusion of tobacco is an excellent insect destroyer, and the spraying of the leaves of a plant with water containing it is very effectual. The juice or sauce' squeezed out of the leaves in their preparation for tobacco is occasionally sold and used as a sheep-wash.

English-grown Tobacco.-In consequence of the depressed state of agriculture in England, the idea of the home-cultivation of tobacco was started, and in 1886 the necessary permission from the Inland Revenue authorities was obtained, and a fair number of trials were made. The results were so encouraging that permission with less severe restrictions was obtained again for 1887, in which year, with an early start, a thoroughly fair trial was made. Every grower reported favourably on the results of his experiments, and the ability to grow the plant in Britain was fully established. But when the authorities were approached with a view to enable the cultivation to be commenced

in earnest, and as a source of profit to the grower, there was not the slightest hope held out that any facilities would be granted; any scheme likely to interfere with the machinery responsible for the annual collection of £9,000,000 could hardly be viewed with favour by the officials concerned.

Had this been foreseen it would hardly have been necessary to try experiments to show that tobacco could be cultivated in England, since history fully demonstrates the fact. From the time of its introduction down to nearly the end of the 18th century, when it was finally banished, the successful cultivation had always more or less been carried on. James I. and Charles I., of course, prohibited it, but without effect. Charles II., when he commenced to derive revenue from the imported leaves, imposed so heavy a tax on the home-grown article as it was hoped would stop its cultivation. The surreptitious growth was continued, in spite of all laws to the contrary, right down to the reign of George III., when it was finally stopped by an act passed in 1782. The plantations in Yorkshire were then destroyed, and the planters imprisoned and heavily fined-the large sum for those days of £30,000 being exacted as penalties. In Ireland the treatment was less severe, and the culture was not finally stopped until about the year 1831, when it was found to be making too much progress. In those days the profit would be more certain and the competition from foreign markets not so great as now, but against these might be weighed the greater technical knowledge of the modern farmer; and the collecting of duty should be easier now than it was then. The recent experiments may be held to have proved that in many parts of England tobacco might be expected to produce a crop worth £50 an acre, and that there is time in the English summers to ripen a fair quality of leaf. What was grown never had a fair trial in regard to curing. English soil is not all equally suited for tobacco-culture; and the statement that tobacco poisons the land merely means that it drains it of certain constituents which can be supplied again by proper treatment with manures, &c.

The ex

The total quantity of tobacco grown in the United States in 1880 was 472,661,159 lb. (of which 171,120,784 lb. were grown in Kentucky); and in 1881-90 the average crop was nearly 490,000,000 lb. The value of a year's crop in 1880-90 varied from $30,000,000 to $45,000,000. The Inland Revenue receipts alone reach some $34,000,000. ports of unmanufactured tobacco from the United States in 1890 amounted, with stems and trimmings, to 255,647,026 lb., valued at $21,479,556; and of manufactured tobacco, including cigars and cigarettes, the value in the same year was $3,876,045. The imports of tobacco in 1890 were 28,728, 159 lb., worth $17,605,663, besides 1,250,218 lb. of cigars, &c., worth $4,104,791. Prior to 1890 the import duties ranged from 40 cents to $2.50 + 25 per cent. ad valorem, but under the McKinley tariff they range from 35 cents to $4.50 + 25 per cent. ad valorem per lb.

See works on tobacco and tobacco-growing by Billings and by Lock (1886); on its history and associations by Fairholt (1859; new ed. 1876) and Taylor (1886); Reports and other papers published by the American government; German works on tobacco-growing and manufacturing by Tiedemann (1854), Wagner (5th ed. 1888), and Becker (2d ed. 1883); Bragge's Bibliotheca Nicotiana (1880); on English and European tobaccoculture, see a work by Beale (1887), and papers in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vols. xxii. and xxiii.; and on the hygienic question, see Hare, The Physiological and Pathological Effects of Tobacco (Phila. and Lond. 1886), and Jolly, Etudes Médicales sur le Tabac (1865).

TOBACCO-PIPES. The oldest tobacco-pipes known are those which have been found in the ancient

«, 'monitor' pipe; b, beaver pipe; c, pipe carved in the form of a human head; d, serpent pipe; e, bird pipe; f, elephant pipe. (From American Naturalist, April 1882.)

into the form of human heads and others into the shape of various animals, but the most common kind have a plain, more or less conical bowl. All have a short, broad, slightly-curved, perforated stem, forming a sort of base for the bowl. Among the animals represented are the beaver, the bear, the seal, the frog, and various kinds of birds. But the most interesting of all are what are called elephant-pipes' (fig. 3, f), of which only two appear to have been found. These unmistakably represent an animal like the elephant, only the tusks are wanting. As the remains of the Mastodon (q.v.), which, however, had tusks, are found in America, the curious question arises, has this animal become extinct on that continent since the time of the people who carved these pipes? This matter has given rise to an animated controversy among archæologists in the United States, some of whom, apparently without much reason, maintain that the two pipes found are of doubtful authenticity.

Of modern or comparatively modern American pipes, the most interesting are the Calumet (q.v.)

Fig. 4. Indian Calumet.

or pipe of peace, the tomahawk-pipe (see TOMAHAWK) or war-pipe, and the elaborately and grotesquely carved stone-pipes made by the Indians of the North Pacific coast, which at first glance do not look like tobacco-pipes at all. The pipes of wood and whale's bone made by the Stickeen Indians, in the form of boats bearing houses, are also very curious.

Except what were made in earlier times in America there are, of course, no tobacco-pipes of a date prior to the end of the 16th century. The first common clay-pipes manufactured in Europe were perhaps those of England and Holland. Some of them, of small size, are known as Elfin Celtic, or fairy pipes. Pipes of baked clay show great diversity of shape and ornament. The finest kinds of these were made during the later half of the 18th century at Sèvres, Chelsea, Dresden, Vienna, and other famous European porcelain

TOBAGO

works, many clever artists having been employed in decorating them. Porcelain pipes, but mostly of a plain kind, are still largely made in Germany. Modern French clay-pipes often display skilful modelling. Meerschaum-pipes, many of which are exquisitely carved, are made in large numbers in Austria, and artificial meerschaums in much greater quantities. 'Briar-root' pipes are cut out of the wood of the tree heath (Erica arborea; Fr. bruyère), which grows in southern France and Italy, and are manufactured at Nuremberg and at St Claude in the east of France.

A great variety of other materials are or have been used for tobacco-pipes. Among these may be mentioned silver, brass, and other metals, glass, ivory, horn, cane, bamboo, and various kinds of stone. Equally numerous have been the ways of decorating their stems and bowls, such as by enamelling, chasing, engraving, carving, and inlaying. The same thing may be said of pipe-cases and tobacco-boxes. In some parts of the world tobacco-pouches are beautifully embroidered. The Hookah (q.v.) or narghileh bowls of India and Persia are often most elaborately ornamented. Pipes made by the Kookies (Manipur) have reservoirs for collecting the tobacco-juice, which is afterwards put into the mouth. The pipes used by the Kirghiz, or at least some of them, have three bowls. Some singular forms of tobacco-pipes are found in uncivilised countries. In New Guinea they consist of capacious hollow cylinders of bamboo, the large volume of smoke which these contain being drawn into the mouth by an aperture at the end. In the Zambesi district of East Africa the stems are formed of an antelope's entire horn, from the middle of which a vertical piece of wood rises, carrying the bowl. The western Eskimo uses pipes with remarkably small metal bowls, and such pipes, though different in form, occur also in China and Japan. The largest collection (7000) of tobacco-pipes ever formed was that made by William Bragge of Birmingham (1823-84), of which he printed a catalogue, Bibliotheca Nicotiana (1880). This collection, now dispersed, included almost every known kind of pipe, as well as varieties of tobacco and snuff boxes.

Tobago, the most southerly of the Windward Islands belonging to Britain, lies 75 miles SE. of Grenada and 18 miles NE. of Trinidad, is 32 miles long, from 6 to 7 broad, and has an area of 114 sq. m. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and named by him Assumption; the name of Tobago is supposed to have arisen from the free use of tobacco by the Caribs when first visited by Europeans. It has been frequently contested between Dutch, Spaniards, and French, but came into British possession in 1763. The island is volcanic, its surface being irregular and picturesque, and abounding in conical hills and spurs, all connected by a ridge running through the interior, the greatest elevation of which is 1800 feet above the level of the sea. From the high ridge descend deep and narrow ravines, which terminate in small alluvial plains. Scarborough is its chief town, pleasantly situated on the south side, and at the base of a conical hill rising 425 feet in altitude, crowned by Fort King George, now without garrison. The chief exports are rum, molasses, cocoa-nuts, and live-stock to the amount of from £20,000 to £40,000. The imports run from £20,000 to £30,000. Pop. (1880) 19,324; (1890) 20,727. The island was united with the colony of Trinidad in 1889, and has a commissioner appointed by the governor.

Tobermory. See MULL.

Tobit, THE BOOK OF, one of the most curious and interesting of the Old Testament apocrypha,

Tobit was a

tells of Tobit, and Tobias his son. pious, upright, and God-fearing Israelite of the tribe of Naphtali, who had been carried captive to Nineveh by Enemassar' (Shalmaneser). Among his many good works was the practice of defying the prohibition of the Assyrian kings by secretly burying the bodies of his slain fellow countrymen. He was at last discovered, and deprived of all his goods in consequence. To add to his misfortune, through an accident that befell him as he slept in the open air one night, he became blind. In his poverty and distress he resolves to send his son Tobias to Rhaga (Rai) in Media to recover an old debt from a friend. Tobias finds a companion for the long journey in an unknown youth (really the archangel Raphael) who on the journey gives him much valuable information and advice. Acting on this, he catches a great 'fish' in the Tigris, and secures its heart, liver, and gall. By means of the first two he is able to deliver from the power of the evil spirit Asmodeus his lovely cousin Sara, daughter of Raguel, at Ecbatana, whom he marries and, after recovering the debt for which he had been sent, leads back to his father's house. Arrived at home, he is able with the gall of the fish to cure his father's blindness. The book closes with Tobit's psalm of thanksgiving, and relates how he enjoyed a hundred years' happiness after these events, Tobias also living to see the age of 127. The Book of Tobit exists in Greek, Latin, Syriac, Aramaic, and Hebrew. There is little doubt that the Greek is the original. Of this there are two recensions, a shorter and a longer, the shorter being the one generally current, and probably the earlier. The longer occurs in the Codex Sinaiticus, and has been published by Reusch (1870). It is represented by the Latin, Aramaic, Hebrew, and partly also by the Syriac version. The Hebrew version was published by Münster as early as 1542; the Aramaic was first edited by Neubauer in 1878. If the Greek is the original, the book can hardly have been written before the 2d century B. C., and it can perhaps be most appropriately assigned to the period of the Jewish struggles for independence, when, for example, it was the complaint of the faithful that their oppressor had cast out many unburied (2 Macc. v. 10). Again, if originally written in Greek, it probably had its origin in in the Syrian Church; its author's acquaintance Egypt. In fact it has never been widely known with the eastern localities he names is superficial and not always accurate; and it has been pointed out that the 'fish' caught in the Tigris is most probably in reality the Egyptian crocodile, of which we know from ancient medical writers that the smoke of its liver used to be regarded as a cure for

epilepsy, and its gall for leucoma. But those who trace the story to a Persian origin are also so far justified by certain facts. Asmodeus is manifestly has the attributes of the protecting spirit Craosha. the Persian evil spirit Aeshmâ Daevâ, and Raphael The presence of the dog, too, who goes out and returns with Tobias and Raphael denotes rather a regarding that animal as unclean, while with the Persian than a pure Hebrew source, the Jews Iranians it is sacred, and the companion of Çraosha.

versions can be seen by the English reader in Churton's The nature of the additions to Tobit in the larger Uncanonical and Apocryphal Scriptures. The book has been commented on by Fritzsche (1853), Reusch (1857), Sengelmann (1857), and Gutberlet (1877). See Schürer, Gesch. d. Jud. Volkes, vol. ii. (Eng. trans.); and A. Neubauer, The Book of Tobit: a Chaldee Text (1877).

Tobogganing. See SLEIGHS.

Tobolsk, a town of western Siberia, capital of a government, stands at the confluence of the Irtish and the Tobol, nearly 2000 miles east of St

Petersburg. It is well built, with timber houses and wide and regular streets, and its position on the two great rivers is picturesque; but its situation, considerably north of the great commercial highway between Russia and Siberia, and at a distance from the more productive regions of the country, is unfavourable for the development of commerce. Pop. 20,130.-For the government, see RUSSIA; also SIBERIA.

Tobo'so, EL, a small town (pop. 1904) in the Spanish district of La Mancha, 60 miles SE. of Toledo, the home of Don Quixote's peerless Dul

cinea del Toboso.

Tocantins, an important river of Brazil, rises in the state of Goyaz, flows north through the state of Pará, and finally, after a course of 1500 miles, widens into the Pará (q.v.), 138 miles from the Atlantic. Its principal affluent is the Araguay (1600 miles), which joins it at the northern extremity of Goyaz, and bears along a greater volume of water than the stream to which it is tributary. The Tocantins is traversed by steamers to 400 miles from the sea; and above the line of falls and rapids 400 miles more is navigable.

Toccata. See MUSIC, Vol. VII. p. 358. Tocqueville, ALEXIS CHARLES HENRI CHÉREL DE, was born at Verneuil, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 29th July 1805. His father, the head of the ancient family of Tocqueville in Normandy, whose wife was a granddaughter of Malesherbes, narrowly escaped the guillotine, but did not emigrate, and, having preserved his property, reassumed in 1815 the title of Count. Young Tocqueville was called to the bar at Paris in 1825, and after a short tour in Italy became an assistant magistrate at Versailles. In 1831 he accepted a government mission to America, to report on the working of the penitentiary system, but the chief fruit of which was his great work, De la Démocratie en Amérique (1835; 15th ed. 1868; Eng. trans. 1835). Democracy, which was the first carefully thought out book written in Europe on the subject, made at once a great sensation. The accuracy of the statements, the skill with which the matter had been digested, and the beauty of the style were loudly praised by critics. The author was described as the continuator of Montesquieu, and the greatest political writer of his time. He became successively a member of the Academy of Moral Sciences and of the French Academy. The work is a fair and lucid statement from a moderate point of view; but his knowledge was hardly sufficient to bear the whole deductive structure of system which be built on it. In 1835 De Tocqueville visited England, where his work had made him known, and where he received an enthusiastic welcome from the leaders of the Whig party. In the same year he married Miss Mottley, an Englishwoman. He shortly afterwards, by a family arrangement, entered into possession of Tocqueville. He stood in 1837 as candidate for the Chamber of Deputies, and was defeated; but two years later was returned by his neighbours, the Norman farmers, by an overwhelming majority. As a speaker De Tocqueville did not succeed, but he exercised great influence on the legislature. Immediately after the revolution of 1848 he was the most formidable opponent of the Socialists and extreme Republicans, and as strenuously opposed Louis Napoleon. He became, however, in 1849 vice-president of the Assembly, and from June to October in the same year was minister of Foreign Affairs. At this time he vindicated the policy of the expedition to Rome, on the ground that it would secure liberal institutions to the States of the Church. After the coup d'état he returned to Tocqueville, where he devoted himself to agricultural pursuits. He there wrote

L'ancien Régime et la Révolution (1856; Eng. trans. same year), a work now regarded as defec tive, not merely in width and depth of knowledge, but in being too favourable to the Revolution. He had also written a work on the reign of Louis XV. (1846-50). In June 1858 he broke a blood-vessel, and took up his abode at Cannes, where he died, 16th April 1859. Tocqueville's Œuvres et Correspondance Inédites were published in 2 vols. (1860), by his friend M. de Beaumont, with a biographical notice (trans. as Memoirs, Letters, and Remains, 1861). A collected edition of his works appeared at Paris in 9 vols. in 1860-65. See the work on De Tocqueville by Jaques (Vienna, 1876); and his Conversations and Correspondence with Nassau Senior (2 vols. 1872). Todas. See NEILGHERRY.

Toddy, the name given in the East Indies to the fermented juice of various palms from which Arrack (q.v.) is distilled. It is applied in Britain to a mixture of whisky, sugar, and hot water, which forms a popular drink in Scotland.

Todhunter, ISAAC, mathematician, was born at Rye in 1820, studied at University College, London, served some time as a tutor, and so was enabled to enter St John's College, Cambridge, where in 1848 he graduated senior wrangler and Smith's prizeman. Elected to a fellowship in his college, he became eventually its principal mathematical lecturer, and ere long his handbooks of Algebra, Geometry, Conic Sections, Trigonometry, Mensuration, and Mechanics made his name known, if not always honoured, in every schoolroom in England. For more advanced students his indefatigable energy and rare faculty of exposition provided also manuals on the Differential and the Integral Calculus, Analytical Statics, Plane Co-ordinate Geometry, and Analytical Geometry. He died 1st March 1884.

Todleben, EDUARD IVANOVITCH, Russian general, was born of German descent at Mitau in Courland, 20th May 1818. After studying at Riga and St Petersburg, he distinguished himself as a lieutenant of engineers in the Caucasus, and was with the engineer corps when the Russian army entered the Danubian Principalities in 1853. His genius as a military engineer was discovered before the Russian army crossed the Pruth, on its retreat from the Principalities; and when the French and English undertook the siege of Sebastopol, Colonel Todleben was sent to assist in its defence. He arrived in the middle of April, and the fortifications were soon placed under his direction. The prodigious activity displayed by the Russians in making good the damage sustained by the heavy fire of the enemy filled the allies with astonishment. Everywhere massive ramparts of earthworks, mounted with formidable batteries, rose up as if by magic at each threatened point within the line of defence. During the latter part of the siege he was wounded in the leg. For services in the siege he was created a general, decorated, and made director of the engineer department in the war office. In 1865 he visited England, and was cordially received. He held no very important post till disasters began to befall the Russian army during the Turkish war. Todleben was remembered, and was called to undertake the siege of Plevna (q.v.), which, after a brilliant defence, he took. He was subsequently made commander-in-chief in Bulgaria, and at the time of his death, 1st July 1884, was governor of Odessa.

He wrote an admirable account of the defence of Sebastopol (French ed. 1864). There are Lives by Brialmont (Brussels, 1884) and Krähmer (Berlin, 1888). See Kinglake's and Hamley's histories of the Crimean War.

TODMORDEN

Todmorden, a market-town on the border of Yorkshire and Lancashire, prettily situated among hills on the Calder, 9 miles N. by E. of Rochdale, 18 NNE. of Manchester, and 13 W. of Halifax. The classical town-hall was erected in 1875, and in front of it is a bronze statue by Foley of John Fielden, M.P. (1784-1849), the founder here of an enormous cotton-mill. Coal abounds in the vicinity. Pop. (1871) 21,764; (1891) 24,725.

Tofana. See POISON.

It

Toga (from Lat. tego, 'I cover'), the principal outer garment of the Romans, was a thick woollen cloth, originally worn over a loin-cloth or apron. When the tunic was adopted the toga became more bulky and was worn in a looser manner. was probably of Etruscan origin, and yet it came to be considered the distinctive badge of the Roman citizen, whence the Roman people are called togati or gens togata. Scholars are divided as to its shape, some making it elliptical with pointed ends, while others declare that the most usual form was a crescent, the back of which was an elliptical curve with a circular segment of cloth sewn on to its concave side. The toga of ordinary life was white in colour. The toga prætexta had a broad purple border, and was worn by children and by the curule magistrates and censors. When the young Roman was declared to be legally of age he assumed the ordinary toga, on this account called the toga virilis. Persons in mourning (sordidati) and persons under impeachment wore the toga pulla, a garment of a dark colour; while those who were seeking office were wont to dress themselves out in garments which had been made artificially bright by the help of chalk-hence their name of candidati. Under the emperors the toga as an article of common wear fell into disuse; but it continued to be worn by magistrates and people on all official occasions,

Togo, in Togoland, since 1884 a German protectorate on the Slave Coast, east of the British Gold Coast, between 0°30′ E. long. and 1°41' E., the boundary towards the interior being somewhat indefinite. The area is estimated at 16,000 sq. m., and the pop. at 500,000. Togo, the largest native town (pop. 3000), is on Lake Togo; Little Popo is the capital, and Lome the chief port.

Toise, an old French linear measure, containing 6 French feet; it was equivalent to 1949 French metres, or to 6:395 English feet.

Tokat, a town of Sivas province, Asia Minor, 70 miles inland from the Black Sea. Pop. 10,000. Tokay, a small Hungarian town on the Theiss, 130 miles NE. of Pesth by rail, with a pop. of 4479. It was destroyed by fire in 1890. In the neighbourhood several battles took place during the troubles of 1849; but the place is known solely for its famous wine, grown on the Hegyalja Mountains. Great care is bestowed on the proper assortment of the grapes (which are never gathered till fully ripe), and also on the preparation of the wine-of which some thirty-four sorts are reckoned; but all of these may be grouped into the two classes of sweet and dry. The wine is brownish yellow while new, changing to a greenish hue as it grows older. The average annual produce of the Tokay vineyards is over 2,000,000 gallons. Tokay wine enjoys an immense reputation. The Ausbruch is one of the finest kinds, but is surpassed by the Essence, regarded by many as the noblest of all wines, made from the juice that exudes from the grapes by the pressure of their own weight. Genuine Tokay is obtainable by wine-merchants only in small quantity (this is especially the case with the more valuable sort, the sweet or imperial Tokay), and is largely mixed with inferior wines to increase the

amount. Large quantities of imitation' Tokay are made by French and German chemists, and sent to all parts of Europe, not excepting Hungary itself.

Token. For token money, see 'MONEY, Vol. Established Church and in seceding churches for VII. p. 270. In Scotland it was usual both in the the minister and elders to furnish communicants with tokens or small vouchers of brass or pewter, serving as passes permitting them to take their places at the communion table, whereupon the tokens were returned to the officiating elders. This system of metal tokens has now been generally superseded by cards.

Tokyo, or TōKEI (Eastern Capital'), is the chief city of the Japanese empire. Until 1868, when the emperor removed his court thither from Kyōtō, it was known as Yedo (Estuary Gate'). Originally the site of a small castle, it was chosen by Tokugawa Iyeyasu in 1590 as the seat of his power, and 80,000 of his warriors settled here. The daimyos (territorial lords) were also compelled to spend six months of the year in Yedo. By reason of its position at the mouth of the rivers which drain Musashi, the largest of the plains of Japan, it is well fitted to be a national centre. From it Japan was reduced to unity under the Tokugawa Shoguns, and the emperors, in resuming direct power on the fall of the Shogunate in 1868, sought to carry on the traditions of centralisation by establishing the restoration government in Yedo. The city has gradually been enlarging seaward, as it takes possession of the growing delta of the river Sumida, on whose south bank it is situated. The lower portion of the city, which is flat and intersected by canals, stretches between the two parks of Ueno (north) and Shiba (south), famous for their shrines and as alternate burial-places of the Tokugawa Shiguns. Midway rises the castle, the central buildings of which were burned in the restoration troubles, now the site of the palace (1889), a fine structure in Japanese style, furnished à l'Européenne, and lit with electricity. Its double ring of high walls and broad moats is finely picturesque. In spring-time the city is gay with plum and cherry blossoms, the river-side avenue of Mukojima, 5 miles long, presenting a unique spectacle. The immense inclosures (yashiki) formerly inhabited by the nobles and their re tainers are gradually disappearing, and handsome modern buildings in brick for the use of the various government departments are taking their place. Of the fifteen city divisions (ku) the northern, Hongo and Kanda, are mostly educational, and contain the buildings of the Imperial University, First Higher Middle School, Higher Normal School, Law School, &c. The student population is astonishingly large, and is an element of danger, as the lads are almost wholly without proper parental or other control. The seaward districts of Nihonbashi, Kyobashi, and Asakusa are industrial and commercial, while the government offices are located in Kojimachi ku. The plain but nicely finished buildings in which the first Japanese parliament met in 1890 were consumed by fire in 1891, but have since been rebuilt. There is an anchorage at Shinagawa, the southernmost suburb of the city, but Yokohama is the port of entry (17 miles off). The climate of Tōkyō is moist and unhealthy in summer, but is generally fine and healthy from September to the beginning of June. The winter nights are cold, and the keen winds of spring sweep the dust violently through the streets. The city is subject to disastrous fires; that of April 1892 burned 4000 houses in one morning. Tokyo has two railway termini 5 miles apart-Shimbashi, connecting it with Yokohama and the south; Ueno, connecting