the internal use of chalybeates, are frequently serviceable. The most certain remedy, however, is extract of belladonna, given at first, according to the age of the patient, in doses varying from th to th of a grain, twice daily, and increased, if required, till it gives rise to marked constitutional disturbance. The various forms of mechanical pressure that have been suggested, with the view of preventing the passage of the urine, cannot be too strongly reprobated. The same remark applies to the too common practice of punishing the unfortunate child for a condition which is utterly beyond its control, and deserves pity rather than chastise

ment.

Retention of Urine is the term employed in medicine to signify a want of power to discharge the urine from the bladder, and it must be carefully distinguished from a far more serious affection known as suppression of urine, in which also no urine is passed, because in this case there is none in the bladder. Retention may arise from Stricture (q.v.) in any of its forms; from some mechanical obstacle in the urethra, a tumour, calculus, clot of blood, &c.; from enlargement of the prostate gland; from want of power in the bladder; or by reflex nervous influence, either owing to some painful condition in the urinary or adjacent organs, or owing to a hysterical condition in the patient. The patient finds himself unable to pass his water, although he has a great desire and makes strong efforts to do so. The bladder soon becomes so distended that it can be felt as a tense round tumour above the pubes. If relief be not speedily afforded, the bladder may burst, and discharge its contents into the peritoneal cavity, in which case death rapidly ensues; or if the urethra be obstructed, it may give way behind the stricture, when the urine is extravasated into the cellular tissue of the adjacent parts a condition which, if not promptly relieved by surgical interference, is likely to be followed by gangrene, typhoid symptoms, and death.

If the symptoms are not very severe, and there is no evidence of impassable obstruction, a hot bath, combined with the administration of steel-drops, in doses of ten minims, taken every ten minutes in thin gruel or in barley-water, will often give relief. Sometimes a full opiate administered by the mouth, or preferably as an enema, or the inhala. tion of a few whiffs of chloroform, will, by allaying spasm, give immediate relief. If these means fail, surgical assistance must be at once procured, and the bladder evacuated by a catheter-an operation often requiring very delicate manipulation. If this cannot be done, which rarely happens, except when the spasm is associated with old-standing disease of the urethra, the surgeon must either puncture the bladder through the rectum, or above the pubes, or make an incision into the urethra either at or behind the seat of the stricture. In cases of enlarged prostate permanent relief can sometimes be afforded by operation; but in most cases the patient is taught to use a catheter for himself, and thereby prevented from the danger of

a recurrence of the retention.

Paralysis of the muscular coat of the bladder may arise from the debility of old age, from the depressed state of the nervous system in severe fevers, from injury or disease of the head or spine, and from various other causes. In a temporary form it is often a result of over-distention of the bladder from stricture or prostatic disease, and it sometimes occurs in the case of nervous sedentary persons, if they have allowed rather more than the usual time to elapse without evacuating the bladder. It should be generally known that retention of urine from paralysis, or even from incomplete obstruction, is sometimes accompanied by dribbling away of the water, so

that the retention might at first sight be mistaken for incontinence of urine. On examination, however, it will be found that the bladder is abnormally distended, and cannot be evacuated by the act and will of the patient. In these cases the urine must for a time be regularly drawn away by the catheter. General tonics, such as the cold bath (or sometimes preferably the sitz-bath) and chalybeates, must be given to improve the general health; while medicines which are supposed to act locally on the muscular coat of the bladder or on the spinal cord must be simultaneously adminis tered. A peculiar form of retention sometimes occurs in women of hysterical temperament, in which the will rather than the power is at fault. Frequent and Painful Micturition may be a symptom of disease of the kidneys, the bladder, or some neighbouring organ, but is very often merely an indication of an abnormally concentrated, acid, and irritating condition of the urine, which causes excessive stimulation of the bladder and urethra. Persons suffering from this affection usually refrain from drinking fluid under the mistaken idea that a diminution in the quantity of urine to be passed will diminish their discomfort. The right course is exactly the opposite; for the more the urine is increased in quantity in such a case, the more its irritating constituents are diluted, and the less pain and annoyance it causes. Free drinking of diluents is often sufficient of itself to remedy the condition.

Strangury (Gr. strange, that which oozes out,' oureo, I micturate') is a symptom of many diseases of the urinary organs (calculus, inflammation of the bladder, gonorrhoea, stricture, &c.). It shows itself in a frequent and irresistible desire to pass water, which is discharged in very small quantity, but causes scalding and cutting pains along the course of the urethra. The pain often extends to the bladder and even to the kidneys, and is sometimes so severe as to implicate the lower bowel (the rectum), and to produce the straining condition known as Tenesmus. It may also be caused by irritating substances in the urine, especially by cantharides or Spanish flies (whose irritant principle is liable to find its way into the renal secretion, whether the above-named drug is taken internally or merely applied to the skin as a blistering agent), and by oil of turpentine, when administered internally. Treatment must of course be directed if possible to the cause of the condition. But among measures generally beneficial may be mentioned a drachm of laudanum in a wineglassful of starch mucilage thrown into the lower bowel, copious mild mucilaginous draughts (of barley-water, for example), the warm bath, and, if that cannot readily be obtained, hot local fomentations.

Urmia. See URUMIAH.

Urn, any vase; but specially a cinerary urn, the vase, of clay, glass, or sculptured marble, in which peoples who practised cremation preserved the ashes of their dead. The forms and patterns in use amongst the prehistoric northern nations differed widely from those found in Roman tombs; nor did any one type prevail even in Rome. See BURIAL, CREMATION.

Urodela. See AMPHIBIA.

Uromastix. See AGAMIDE.

Urquhart, SIR THOMAS, of Cromarty (160560), miscellaneous writer, eldest son of Sir Thomas Urquhart, head of an old family possessed of extensive estates in that county, was born about 1605. He was educated at King's College, Aber deen, travelled in France, Spain, and Italy, and there (according to his own account) acquired a perfect knowledge of foreign languages and

URQUHART

great skill in fencing. On his return he bitterly opposed the covenanting party, took up arms against them in the north, but was worsted and forced to pass to England by sea. Becoming attached to the court, he was knighted at Whitehall, 7th April 1641. The same year he published his Epigrams Divine and Moral, dedicated to the Marquis of Hamilton. This contains only three of the ten books he wrote. He brags of having 'contryved, blocked, and digested those eleven hundreth epigrams in a thirteen weeks tyme. Its speed proves, he thinks, his great maturetie and promptness of wit.' But the pieces written in Latin and English, though quaint, have no real merit. On his father's death in 1642 Urquhart found the estate he inherited much encumbered, whereupon, I, as I had done many times before, betook myself to my hazards abroad.' Returning after some years, he fixed his residence at Cromarty. Here, though much troubled by his creditors, he produced his Trissotetras; or a most exquisite Table for resolving all manner of Triangles, &c. (1645), a curious but useless mathematical treatise.

In 1649 his library, 'compiled (like a compleat nosegay) of flowers, which on my travels I had gathered out of the gardens of above sixteen several kingdoms,' was seized and sold. He took up arms in the royal cause, was declared a rebel by parliament, was present at the battle of Worcester, where he lost most of his MSS., 'seven large portmantles full of precious commodity.' One treatise hastily seized by a file of musquettiers to afford smoak to their pipes of tobacco,' was rescued by a friendly officer. Urquhart was removed to London, where through Cromwell's influence he was allowed considerable liberty. There in 1652 he published The Pedigree and The Jewel (the full titles are too long to quote). The first was an exact account of the Urquhart family, in which they are traced back to Adam. Among his ancestors were the sister of Spartus that built Lacedemon, Pharaoh's daughter, and Panthea, daughter of Deucalion and Pirra.' The second is chiefly a panegyric on the Scots nation. Its account of the soldiers and scholars of the period is still of value. In 1653 he issued his Introduction to the Universal Language, which for variety of diction in each part of speech surmounteth all the languages of the world."' The longings of the generous reader' were to be satisfied by fuller treatises which never appeared. The same year we have his version of the first two books of Rabelais. The translation of the third was not issued till after his death. This is said to have occurred in 1660 abroad (whither he had escaped), in a fit of laughter on hearing of the restoration of Charles II.

Urquhart's works are a strange mixture. The learning is enormous, yet the scholarship is inaccurate. He is very industrious, yet very slovenly. Crazy with conceit, he yet evinces a true appreciation of all that is noble. Though a clumsy writer, he has many phrases of quaint felicity, many passages of great power. His rendering of Rabelais is an English classic. The extravagance, the grotesque ness, the wild humour, the wisdom of the great Frenchman had a peculiar attraction for the Scottish cavalier. It must be added that he amplifies and lingers over the grosser passages with a gusto there is no mistaking. His extraordinary acquaintance with strange English words is not less remarkable than his command over his author's language.

See his Works in Maitland Club Publications (1834). Editions of his Rabelais are numerous. An expurgated version was edited by Professor Morley in 1883. See, too, Hugh Miller's Scenes and Legends.

Ursa Major, 'the Greater Bear,' and Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear,' are two celebrated constellations in the northern hemisphere of the heavens. Ursa Major was distinguished as early as the time of Homer by the names Arktos, 'the Bear,' and Hamaxa, the Wagon,' the vivid imagination of the Greeks discovering a fanciful resemblance between these objects and the group of brilliant stars in this constellation. The Roman name Ursa was a translation of the Greek Arktos; the Romans also called its seven bright stars the Septentriones, the seven ploughing oxen,' whence the adjective septentrionalis came to signify north. The common names throughout Europe for these seven stars are the Plough,' Charles's (Charlemagne's) Wain,' 'the Wagon-evidently derived from the classical epithets above mentioned; the common American name is the Dipper.' The remarkable group of stars in the hinder part of the Great Bear, being within 40° of the north pole, never sinks below the horizon of any place in a higher north latitude than 40°, a peculiarity alluded to by Ovid in his Metamorphoses. It contains a considerable number of stars, seventeen of which are easily visible to the naked eye; but of these only one (a) is of the first magnitude, two (B and y) of the second, and eight (among whom are 8, e, 5, and 7) of the third. The accompanying figure shows the arrangement of the seven stars constituting 'the Plough.' a and B are known as 'the Pointers' from their

use

in detecting the Pole-star (q.v.). A line drawn from the Pole-star through of the Great Bear, and produced its own length, passes close to the star Arcturus of the first magnitude.— Ursa Minor is less prominent in the heavens. It was also Arktos and Hamaxa among the Greeks, but was besides distinctively denominated Cynosura, 'the Dog's Tail,' from the circular sweep formed by three of the stars in it. The star a in the extremity of the tail of the Little Bear, at present the Pole-star (q.v.), is the brightest in the constellation, though only of the third magnitude.

Ursa Major.

According to a Greek legend Ursa Major was the metamorphosis of Callisto, one of Diana's nymphs, who having violated her vow, and being transformed by her indignant mistress into a bear, was slain by her son Arcas, and afterwards transferred to the heavens as a constellation by Zeus; Arcas being at the same time metamorphosed into Boötes, the Arktophylax, 'Bear-warden,' of the Greeks. See STARS.

allied to the Porcupine, and often called the Canada Urson (Erethizon dorsatus), a rodent nearly differs from the porcupine in the flatter head, the About the size of a small hare, it Porcupine.

shorter and not convex snout, the longer tail, and in having the short spines almost hidden by the long hair. It is found in the forests of Canada and the United States. Its quills are dyed by the Indian women, and used for ornamental purposes.

Ursula, ST, a celebrated saint and martyr of the Roman calendar (October 21), especially honoured at Cologne, the reputed place of her martyrdom. The legend in its present form is found as far back as the 12th-century Chronicle of Sigebert of Gemblours, and fills 230 folio pages in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum. Here Ursula is the daughter of a British king, and is sought in

marriage by the son of a heathen prince. She made it a condition that her suitor should become a Christian, and that she should be allowed a space of three years to make a voyage of pious pilgrimage with her maidens, 11,000 in number. She sailed up the Rhine to Cologne, thence to Basel, travelling thence to Rome. Returning to Cologne, the pious virgins fell into the hands of a horde of Huns, who put them all to the sword save Ursula herself, reserved as a prize for the chief. But she demanded to join her companions in martyrdom, and thus the full tale of victims was made up. The centuriators of Magdeburg exposed this ridiculous story; the Jesuit Crombach devoted an entire folio volume to its defence (1647). One explanation offered is that this belief arose from the name of a virgin who was really the companion of Ursula's martyrdom-Undecimilla. The record of the martyrdom in the calendar thus being Ursula et Undecimilla VV.,' 'Ursula and Undecimilla Virgins,' was easily mistaken for Ursula et undecim millia VV., Ursula and eleven thousand virgins.' Or again the entry might have been Ursula et XI.M.V.,' where M. being misread for millia not martyres gave Ursula and 11,000 virgins,' instead of Ursula and 11 martyr virgins. Early in the 12th century the citizens of Cologne in digging foundations for their new walls across the cemetery of the old Roman settlement of Colonia Agrippina naturally enough found a large number of bones. These were declared by an ecstatic nun of Schönau, Elizabeth by name, to be the relics of the virgins. Unhappily many of these were soon discovered to be the bones of males, but the nun redeemed the reputation of the virgins by discovering in a series of fresh visions that a pope of the name of Cyriacus, an archbishop, several cardinals, bishops, and priests had been so charmed by the holiness of the lovely virgins as to follow them to Cologne, only to gain for themselves also the martyr's crown. But still worse, a number of young children's bones were found, and unhappily the ecstatic nun was now dead. This compromis ing fact, however, was explained by a vision vouchsafed to a patriotic English monk of Arns berg to the effect that many of their married relations had accompanied the virgins on the voyage from England. But, as Schade first pointed out (Die Sage von der heiligen Ursula, Han. 1854), Ursula is none other than a Christianised survival of old German paganism still remembered under the names of Berchta, Hulda; in Swabia, Ursel or Hörsel; and in Sweden, 'Old Urschel.'

See, besides the work by Schade mentioned above, Kessel, St Ursula und ihre Gesellschaft (Col. 1863); Stein, Die heilige Ursula (ib. 1879); and S. Baring Gould's Popular Myths of the Middle Ages.

Ursulines, a female teaching order in the Roman Catholic Church, founded by St Angela Merici of Brescia in 1537, who was born at Desenzano in 1470, died in 1540, and was formally canonised in 1807. She formed at Brescia an association of young women for the tending of the sick and poor, and the instruction of children, and papal confirmation of the order was obtained from Paul III. in 1544. In 1565 a house was opened at Cremona, and St Charles Borromeo brought the order to Milan. In France one of its most distinguished members was the celebrated Madeleine de Ste Beuve, who endowed an Ursuline house at Paris in 1610. Here they first adopted the common life instead of dispersion in various homes. They were introduced into Savoy by St Francis de Sales in 1635. They spread also over Germany, Austria, and in the fullness of time Canada and the United States. An establishment was founded at Edinburgh in 1836, being the first Catholic convent in Scotland since the Reformation. See French

works on the foundress and the order by SainteFoi (1858), Postel (1879 et seq.), and At (1885).

Urticaceæ, a natural order of trees, shrubs, and herbs, natives of almost all parts of the world. The order embraces about 110 genera, divided into 8 tribes or sub-orders, and about 1500 species. The tribes are Artocarpe, which includes the Bread-fruit Tree (Artocarpus incisa); Cannabineæ, which is represented by Hemp (q.v.); Celtideæ, the principal representative of which is the Nettle tree (Celtis australis); Conocephalea, to which no interest attaches; Morea, to which belongs the Mulberry (q.v.); Thelygoneæ, including nothing of interest; Ulmie, represented by the Elm (q.v.); and Urtice, which comprises the Stinging Nettle, the Fig (q.v.), &c.

Uruguay (officially, República Oriental del Uruguay; formerly known as the Banda Oriental or Eastern Bank-i.e. of the Uruguay) is the smallest of the South American republics, although its area-72,110 sq. m.-is three-fifths that of the United Kingdom and exceeds that of the New England states and Maryland together. Its general outline is that of a pear, the sides marked by the Uruguay River and the rivers and chain of hills which, with the Lagoa Mirim, form the boundary line with Brazil. The Atlantic washes its shores for 120 miles, the Plate and Uruguay for nearly 600 miles. The most important of the numerous rivers of the interior is the Rio Negro, which flows across the central portion. The country is not mountainous, but full of low hills, often forming long ranges, the highest reaching only 1650 feet. Gneiss and granite predominate in the north, and elsewhere porphyry and sandstone. copper mines are being worked, and other minerals more or less abundant are silver, iron, tin, mercury, mica, beautiful marbles, slate, gypsum, cobalt, and columbite; diamonds also have been found in Minas. But little has been done so far to exploit the mineral wealth of the country. Uruguay enjoys on the whole a delightful climate; the temperature normally does not fall below 35° nor rise much above 90° F. The flora includes many useful trees, amongst them the palm, brilliant flowers, and a host of medicinal plants. Of the fauna may be mentioned the jaguar and puma, the wild cat, tapir, deer, rhea, parakeets, humming-birds, plenti ful waterfowl in the lagoons, and snakes (rattle. snake, a cross-marked viper, &c.), lizards, and venomous spiders.

Gold and

The population, estimated at 684,000 in 1889, and again at 730,000 in 1892, is made up mainly of half-breeds, from whom the Gauchos (q.v.) are drawn; but the foreign element, in which Basques and Italians are most prominent, is rapidly increas ing. In 1891 more than two-thirds of all the children born had foreign blood on the side of one at least of their parents. The leading industry is still the raising of cattle and sheep, the latter mainly in the south and west. Six-sevenths of all the exports are embraced under the head of pastoral and saladero produce. Liebig's factory is at Fray Bentos (q.v.). Uruguay possesses some 16,000,000 head of sheep and 6,000,000 of cattle, valued at over $76,000,000. Agriculture takes up only 1,500,000 acres, mostly under wheat and maize, though tobacco, grapes, and olives also are grown. There are several agricultural colonies, chiefly Swiss, Spanish, and Italian. The manu factories are limited to those of Montevideo and a few breweries, flour-mills, &c. throughout the country. The foreign trade on the whole has largely increased within late years; but it fluctuates with the sense of public security, and unfor tunately financial as well as political scares have helped to unsettle this. In 1890 the imports

URUGUAY

reached $32,364,627, and the exports $29,085,519; compare with these the figures for 1891-imports $18,900,000, and exports $26,900,000—the fall being due to a financial crisis involving the readjustment of the public debt. Yet even the latter year shows an average of £12, 12s. per head of population, as against £9 for the Argentine Republic. Even without taking into account its mineral wealth, which at present is estimated according to the individual imagination, the country is very rich in natural products, and has nothing against it except its government.

This may be summed up as a sham constitutionalism, in spite of the honest efforts of many of the senators and representatives. Uruguay is divided into nineteen departments, for each of which a senator is returned by an electoral college chosen by the people. Senators are elected for six years, members of the lower house (in the proportion of one for every 3000 male adults who can read and write) for three years. The president is elected for four years, and with a strong military force he is practically master of the country: arbitrary arrests and imprisonment without trial are endured; and even the scandal connected with the sacking of the National Bank failed to unseat President Herrera in 1892. The army, whose influence with the executive is very great, numbers 3500 men, well armed; and there is an armed police force of 4000, besides a citizen force. The navy has only 185 men and officers, manning three gunboats, seven steamers, &c. The revenue in the years 1885-89 crept up from $13,719,693 to $15,690,294, while the expenditure remained between $13,000,000 and $14,000,000. But financial incapacity raised the public debt within even fewer years from $81,000,000 to $106,000,000 in 1891; the debt, however, was readjusted, and part of it converted in 1892. Primary education is compulsory at the end of 1891 there were 14,370 children inscribed in the public schools (68, with 298 teachers); and there are besides numerous private schools, religious seminaries, a military college, a normal school, school of arts and trades, and a university in Montevideo. The state religion is Roman Catholic, but all are tolerated; Catholics outnumber Protestants as eighty to one. Over 700 miles of railway were open in 1891, and 400 in construction; and there were 2352 miles of telegraph lines. The chief towns, Montevideo, Paysandú, Colonia, Minas, &c., have separate articles.

The history of all the Plate states is woven of the same materials, mostly in the same colours and patterns, and largely in one piece. Uruguay is mainly distinguished as in its earliest years a bone of contention between the Portuguese and Spaniards, and afterwards between Brazil and Argentina. The Portuguese founded the town of Colonia, opposite Buenos Ayres, at the beginning of the 17th century, when the king of Spain, to protect the trade of Peru, had limited the Buenos Ayres exports to 16,000 bushels of wheat and 25 tons each of salted beef and of tallow; and by this means much contraband trade was drawn off to Brazil, until in 1724 the governor of Buenos Ayres founded Montevideo to checkmate the Portuguese colonists. This city was carried by assault by General Whitelocke in 1807, but evacuated after his defeat at Buenos Ayres; and, during the years of revolt from the mother-country, the royal forces held it until 1814, in which year Uruguay was recognised by the congress of Tucuman as independent. Brazil, however, had at once after the Spanish evacuation seized on Montevideo, and occupied the country as the Cisplatine Province until 1825. Then Argentina, resenting this occupation, laid claim to the territory, and in the war which followed, aided by the Uruguayans

(see TREINTA Y TRES), defeated both the Brazilian army and navy, till in 1828 the two powers agreed to guarantee the independence of the little republic. But its proximity to Buenos Ayres made it too easy and popular a refuge from the tyranny of the dictator Rosas, and drew down upon it his vengeance (see ROSAS). In the long wars which followed 1839 the chief event is the more than eight years' siege desperately but successfully endured by Montevideo, to whose aid came Garibaldi (q.v.). Rosas fled in 1852, and in the next eight years Uruguay enjoyed eight changes of governors. Then Brazil intervened and placed General Flores at the head of affairs; and from 1864 to 1870 the republic joined with Brazil and Argentina in the disastrous war against Paraguay, Flores being assassinated in 1868. For nearly twenty years after the republic was misgoverned by a succession of political gangs who shamelessly plundered it during their more or less brief periods of power: how far matters have improved since it might be rash to say. Yet, with the help of immigration and private enterprise, something has been done, in spite of jobbery and misrule, to develop the country.

See Mulhall's Handbook of the River Plate, and Levey's Handy Guide to the River Plate (2d ed. 1890); Diaz, Notice Historique (Paris, 1878); Van Bruyssel, La République Orientale de l'Uruguay (Brussels, 1889); also histories by F. Banza (Spanish period; Montevideo, 1880) and De Maria (ib. 1864). The Purple Land that England Lost, by W. H. Hudson (1885), is readable, and gives a picture of the country in the period after Rosas.

Uruguay River rises in the Sierra do Mar in the Brazilian state of Santa Catharina, and flows in a swift course west and south to form with the Paraná the Plate estuary (see LA PLATA). It separates Brazil and Uruguay from the Argentine provinces, and has a course of nearly 1000 miles. It is encumbered by numerous rapids, but it is navigable for vessels to Salto (200 miles), and above this point steamers run as far as Paso San Isidro.

Urumiah, or URMIA, a town of the Persian province of Azerbijan, 10 miles W. of the lake of Urmia, in a wide and fertile plain; pop. 32,000. Urumiah, the seat of a Nestorian bishop, and of American and Anglican missions, was said to be the birthplace of Zoroaster (q. v.). The Lake of Urmia (4500 feet above the sea), lying in a depression between the Kurdish mountains and the hills that bound the south end of the Caspian Sea, is about 90 miles by 25, and contains numerous islands. It has no outlet, but has many feeders, some 80 to 150 miles long; the water is intensely salt, on an average only 12 or 15 feet deep, the greatest depth sounded as yet being 40 feet; fish are not found, but plenty of small crustaceans, on which various kinds of water-birds feed.

Urumtsi, the most important city in the Chinese territory of Zungaria, at the northern base of the Tian-Shan Mountains. It is in a fertile district, commands the principal route from Mongolia into Eastern Turkestan, and has a large trade with all the adjoining lands. Pop. 20,000-30,000.

Urus (Bos taurus), the Latin name for the wild ox, which in the time of Julius Cæsar (see Bell. Gall. vi. 28) was abundant in European forests. The same animal seems to have been called Aurochs by the Germans, and was the ancestor of the European domesticated cattle, and probably also of the wild cattle preserved at Storer, Wild Cattle of Great Britain (1879). Chillingham and some other British parks. See

Usagara, a territory in German East Africa, between Lake Tanganyika and the coast. Usbegs. See UZBEGS.

Usedom, an island of Prussia, lies at the mouth of the Oder, and together with the island of Wollin shuts off the Stettiner Haff from the Baltic. Area, 157 sq. m.; pop. 33,000. On its east side is the port of Swinemünde (q.v.), on the south-west side the town of Usedom (pop. 1786). Uses, a form of equitable ownership peculiar to English law. Under the old law, if A and B were enfeoffed in land, to hold it to the use of C, A and B were legal owners, but C could bring them into a court of equity, and compel them to perform the trust. Uses were employed in various ways to evade the policy of the feudal law; parliament attacked the system more than once, and at last in 1536 the Statute of Uses provided that, where one held to the use of another, the person having the benefit of the use should also have the legal estate. The effect of this enactment was just the reverse of what parliament intended; uses were freely created, in order that the statute might operate upon them, and turn them into legal estates; equitable interests were created by the simple expedient of limiting a use upon a use.' Trusts (q.v.) of land and modern forms of conveyancing cannot be explained without reference to the old doctrine of uses.

See the works of Williams and Challis on Real Property. A clear account of the system is given in Bacon's famous Reading on the Statute of Uses.

Ushak. See CARPETS.

before the Lord Deputy. About 1603 he became Chancellor of St Patrick's, and in 1607 he was chosen professor of Divinity in Dublin, which office he held for thirteen years. He often visited England, and became an intimate friend of Camden, Selden, Bodley, Cotton, and Evelyn. In 1620 he was made Bishop of Meath, Privy-councillor for Ireland in 1623, and Archbishop of Armagh in 1625. He took part in 1634 in the convocation which drew up the canons of the Irish Church. He had Quarles as his secretary down to the Usher left Ireland outbreak of the Rebellion. for England in 1640, and it was on this journey that Wodrow tells us in his Analecta he paid a visit at Anwoth to Samuel Rutherford. During the Irish rebellion in that year all his property save his books was plundered. He continued to live in England, declined to sit in the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, and for about eight He was years was preacher at Lincoln's Inn. constant in his loyalty to the throne, yet was treated with more than indulgence by Cromwell. In his last years he lived with his son-inlaw, Sir Timothy Tyrrell, at Cardiff, under the roof of the dowager Lady Stradling at St Donate, Glamorganshire, and of the dowager Countess of Peterborough, in whose house at Reigate in Surrey he died, 21st March 1656. Cromwell gave him a splendid burial in the Erasmus Chapel of Westminster Abbey, allowing the Church of England burial service to be used on that occasion alone.

Ushas, Hindu goddess of the Dawn. See VEDA. Ushaw, 4 miles WNW. of Durham, the seat of St Cuthbert's Roman Catholic College, transferred hither in 1808 from Crook Hall. See DOUAY.

Usher (or USSHER), JAMES, in Dr Johnson's phrase the great luminary of the Irish church,' was born in Dublin, January 4, 1581. His father, Arland Usher, one of the clerks in Chancery, was a gentleman of good estate and family; his uncle, Henry Usher (c. 1550-1631), was his predecessor as Archbishop of Armagh. A brother of his mother's was that Richard Stanihurst who with his sister and father turned Roman Catholic, translated the first four books of the Eneid into English hexameters, and wrote the Description of Ireland for Holinshed's Chronicles. At thirteen Usher entered the newly-founded Trinity College, Dublin, being its second scholar and eighth fellow elected by merit. His father had intended him to study law, but his death in 1598 left the young scholar free to follow his natural bent. He first made over all the family property to his brother and sisters, only keeping enough for his support during his studies. The learned Catholic Thomas Stapelton's Fortress of Faith led him at twenty to the study of the Fathers, and their writings he read systematically every day for eighteen years. At nineteen he argued publicly with success against the Jesuit Henry Fitzsymons; in 1600 he took his Master's degree, and was chosen Catechist reader in his college; in 1601 he received both orders on the same day, and shortly after was appointed to preach at Christ Church on Sunday afternoons

Usher stands distinguished amongst the theologians of any age, not more by his vast learning and sagacity than by his charity, his sweetness of temper, and his humility. We are told that at the close of his long conferences with the learned Puritan Dr John Preston the good archbishop would say: 'Come, doctor, let us say something about Christ before we part-a thoroughly characteristic story. He was Calvinistic in theology, and moderate and tolerant in his ideas of church government. As an eirenicon he proposed a modiitself to the zealots of either side-this was published by Dr Bernard in 1658 as The Reduction of Episcopacy to the Form of the Synodical govern

ment in the Antient Church. Of his numerous writings the greatest is the Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti (2 vols. folio, 1650-54), which gave us the long accepted chronology of Scripture, the Creation being fixed at 4004 B.C., &c. As early as 1647 we find from the Stationers' Hall Registers that Fuller was labouring at an English translation of this work, which appeared in 1658 under Usher's own name only. Fuller acknowledges in his Church History that his wares' were from the 'storehouse of that reverend prelate the Cape merchant of all learning.' He says further: Clean through this work, in point of chronology, I have with implicit faith followed his computation, setting my watch by his dial, knowing his dial to be set by the sun.'

by the Irish and British (1632) and Britannicarum Usher's Discourse of the Religion anciently professed Ecclesiarum Antiquitates et Primordia (1639) opened up new ground, giving in Gibbon's phrase all that learning can extract from the rubbish of the dark ages;' in his SS. Polycarpi et Ignatii Epistolæ (1644; cum appendice Ignatiana, 1647) he supported the authenticity of the Middle Form of the much contested letters of Ignatius (q.v.); the Calvinistic Body of Divinity (1645) was published without his consent, and part of it was denied to be his; his De Græca Septua ginta Interpretum Versione Syntagma (1655) was the There is a complete edition of his writings by Professor first attempt at a real examination of the Septuagint. Elrington and Dr J. H. Todd (17 vols. 1841-48-62-64); Lives by Nicholas Bernard (1656), Richard Parr (1686), and Elrington (in vol. i. of his edition). See also W. Ball Wright, The Ussher Memoirs (Dublin, 1889).