actions-i.e. their fitness to produce happiness. This hedonistic theory, its genesis, and its various types are dealt with at ETHICS, Vol. IV. p. 435. The words utility and utilitarian in this sense were first used by Bentham about 1802; Mill, however, believed that he first employed in philosophy the term utilitarian (which he found in Galt's Annals of the Parish) in 1823. Utilitarian and utilitarianism are also used loosely in a much wider sense of the view of life which would regulate all effort and action with total disregard to what is merely noble or beautiful, to culture, grace, and artistic perfection, and would look for the universal test of aims and conduct in practical usefulness alone. Will it pay?' becomes then the first and the final problem for this degrading and impossible Philistinism, which is the negation of all poetry and art, of ideal morals or true religion. This is of course not necessarily involved in the acceptance of a hedonistic system of ethics. The utilitarian conception of education is a preliminary apprenticeship to the future trade or occupation in life; science or some branch of science may constitute an essential part of serious education, but literature (not to speak of the classics) should be but pastime for leisure hours. The contrasted ideals in this province are well shown in Herbert Spencer's Education, and Fouillée's Education from a National Standpoint (trans. 1892). See also BENTHAM, MILL, &c.

Utopia (Gr. ou, 'not,' and topos, a place,' equivalent to Nowhere'), the name given by Sir Thomas More (q.v.) to the imaginary island which he makes the scene of his famous political romance, De Optimo Reipublicæ Statu, deque Nova Insula Utopia, originally published in Latin at Louvain in 1516, and translated into English by Raphe Robynson (1551; 2d ed. 1556, reprinted by Professor Lumby 1880), as well as by Bishop Burnet in 1683. More represents this island as having been discovered by Raphael Hythloday, a companion of Amerigo Vespucci, but it of course is England, its capital Amaurote, London. Its laws and institutions are represented as described in one afternoon's talk at Antwerp, occupying the whole of the second book, to which, indeed, the first serves but as a framework. More's romance, or rather satire, obtained a wide popularity, and supplied (though incorrectly enough) the epithet Utopian to all impracticable schemes for the improvement of society.

Utraquists. See Huss.

Utrecht (Oude trecht, 'old ford;' Lat. Trajectum ad Rhenum), the capital of a province of the Netherlands, on the Old Rhine (q.v.), 23 miles SSE. of Amsterdam and 38 ENE. of Rotterdam. The walls were levelled in 1830, and formed into shady promenades, the present fortifications consisting of strong forts. St Martin's Cathedral, founded by St Willibrord about 720, and rebuilt in 1251-67, had its nave destroyed by a hurricane in 1674, so that the choir and the tower (321 feet high) now stand separate. The famous university, founded in 1634, numbers nearly 700 students, and has a library of 160,000 volumes. Other edifices are the 14th-century Roman Catholic cathedral, the

town-hall (1830), the 'Pope's house' (built by Adrian VI., who was born here in 1459), the palace (in 1807) of Louis Bonaparte, &c. Utrecht since 1723 has been the headquarters of the Jansenists (see Vol. VI. p. 280). The manufactures include tobacco and cigars, woollen fabrics and carpets, salt, furniture, chemicals, machinery, &c. Pop. of the town (1869) 59,299; (1890) 86,116; and of the province (1890) 224,001, its area being 530 sq. m. Utrecht is one of the oldest cities of the Netherlands, and probably was founded by the Romans. Here the famed union of the northern provinces for the defence of political and religious freedom was formed, January 23, 1579 (see Vol. V. p. 742); and Utrecht is famous for the nine distinct treaties there concluded on April 11, 1713, which brought to a close the war of the Spanish succession (see Vol. IX. p. 779). By the treaty between France and Britain, the former ceded St Kitts, Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland (the liberty of fishing for cod being reserved), recognised formally the Hanoverian succession, engaged that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united, and that no part of the Spanish Netherlands should ever be ceded or transferred to France; whilst Spain renounced her Italian possessions in favour of Austria, and gave up Gibraltar and Minorca to Britain.

Utrecht, capital of the southernmost province of the Transvaal or South African Republic, 30 miles NE. of Newcastle in Natal. Pop. 4000.

Utrera, an old town of Spain, 19 miles by rail SE. of Seville. Pop. (1887) 15,010.

Utricularia. See INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. Uttoxeter (A.S. Uttocceaster), a market-town of Staffordshire, on an eminence above the Dove, 14 miles ENE. of Stafford. It has a modern church with an ancient tower and lofty spire, a town-hall (1855), a mechanics' institute, a free grammar. school (rebuilt 1859), and manufactures of iron, nails, ropes, beer, &c. Pop. 5000.

Uvula. See PALATE, DIGESTION.

Uxbridge, a market-town of Middlesex, on the Colne, 16 miles W. of London. It has one church, St Margaret's, restored 1872; another, St Andrew's (1865), with a spire of 170 feet; a town-hall (1836); and a spacious corn exchange (1861). Pop. (1851) 3236; (1891) 8206. Commissioners met here in January 1645 to discuss terms of peace between Charles I. and the parliament, but separated the month after without coming to any agreement. See Redford's History of Uxbridge (1818).

Uxmal, a ruined city in the north-west of Yucatan, 40 miles SW. of Merida, with vast remains of ancient grandeur, temple-terraces (see TEOCALLI) like those at Palenque (q. v.); &c.

Uzbegs, an important branch of the Turkish family of Tartars, who constitute the chief element in the native population in Khiva, Bokhara, Khokand, and some other parts of Turkestan. In some places their blood is mixed with a Tajik (or Aryan) strain; elsewhere, with Kiptchak, Kalmuck, and Kirghiz elements. Some are still nomads, but the most are settled in towns.

V

the twenty-second letter of our alphabet, is a differentiated form of U. The two signs were at first merely the capital and the uncial forms of the same letter, which had two values, a vocalic and a consonantal. The uncial form, U, or u, has now been conveniently appropriated to denote the vowel, the capital form V being reserved for the consonantal sound. How this came about has already been explained in the article U, where the history of the symbol has been traced through the Greek upsilon and the Phoenician vau to the Egyptian hieroglyphic picture of an asp, which denoted f. The English sounds of f and v are closely related; they are both labio-dentals, formed by bringing the lower lip into contact with the upper teeth, being the soft or voiced sound, and f the hard or unvoiced sound. This close relation of the sounds explains the derivation of one form from the other, and accounts for the fact that in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet there was no separate sign for y, the symbol f representing both sounds, as is indicated by the fact that in A.S. the Latin words Virgilius and levisticum were transliterated Firgilius and lufestice. It is believed that a medial f was pronounced as v, and an initial fas f. Thus in A.S. the words 'over,' 'heaven,' and 'five' are written ofer, heofon, and fif. The use of the symbol r to denote the voiced labio-dental is believed to be due to French influence, as it came in soon after the Norman conquest. Thus in the Peterborough MS. of the Saxon Chronicle, which was written before 1131, we find 'silver' and 'luve' (love) replacing the seofor and lufe of the earlier copies. In Latin the consonantal sound of v was that of our w, as is shown among other proofs by the name of the letter, which is ve. If the sound had been that of our e, which is a continuant, the name would have been cv, following the analogy of ef, es, and the other continuants. But the name ve, originally pronounced we, follows the analogy of be, pe, and the other explosives, and hence the sound must have been that of w, an explosive. The change from the explosive to the continuant sound must have taken place in France before the Frankish conquest, and from France it came to us. Germany the symbol normally retains the old value of f, our v sound being represented by w.

In

cow.

the medical profession and of the public. Natural cowpox is a vesicular disease of the teats and udders of milch-cows, and the vesicles contain lymph which has, when inoculated, the property of transmitting the same disease. Jenner thought that cowpox was derived from the ailment in horses' heels called Grease (see WEED), and Loy actually succeeded in producing vaccinia from this source. Ceely and Badcock produced vesicles by variolating cows (i.e. infecting them with smallpox), and Voigt, Simpson, Hime, and King claim to have succeeded, though Chauveau and Kline failed. There is no doubt protective vaccine material can be obtained from either natural cowpox, horsepox, or smallpox passed through the Sir John Simon believes that cowpox is the smallpox of the cow, and this opinion appears to be justified by positive results. Artificial cowpox has been chiefly maintained since the time of Jenner by means of humanised lymph. of arm-to-arm instead of preserved lymph is essential to the success and efficacy of vaccination with humanised lymph. Ordinarily lymph can be taken from a vaccinated arm at the end of a week, and it should be carefully selected from the best formed vesicles upon the healthiest children. The Vaccination Acts of 1867, 1871, and 1874 made vaccination effectively compulsory in England, so that it is estimated about 95 per cent. are vaccinated. The registrar of the district must within a week of the registration of a birth deliver to the parent a notice of requirement' of vaccination of the child within three months of its birth in England and Ireland, and within six months in Scotland. In America vaccination is not compulsory, except indirectly, in most of the states of the Union, nor in Canada. It is in Victoria, Western Australia, and Tasmania, but not in New South Wales.

The use

Calf-lymph.-Since 1880 the use of animal lymph has increased to an enormous extent; the use of this lymph is now obligatory in Berlin and in Saxony in public vaccination stations, and an establishment for the preparation of it exists in Berlin. Consequently there is now no active agitation against vaccination in Germany. Bovine lymph from spontaneous cowpox at Beaugency in France was introduced into the United States in 1870, and has almost entirely superseded humanised lymph. In Britain also animal vaccine has recently been found to be as manageable as humanised lymph, the station being at Lamb's Conduit Street in London. The lymph used was sent over to England in 1882 from Laforêt, near Bordeaux, from a calf vaccinated with material taken from a case of spontaneous or natural cowpox. Five calves are vaccinated every week in fifty or sixty places on the abdomen. The ordinary course run by the disease is that between three and four days after insertion of the lymph a line of inflammation appears, which on the fifth day is distinctly vesicular, and yields lymph. On the sixth day the vesicle is broader, and on the fourteenth or fifteenth day the crust is fully formed, and generally falls off about the end of the third week. The course of the vesicle is more rapid in the calf than in children, and the lymph is best on the fifth day. Part of the lymph is collected on points and sent up 411

·

to the National Vaccine Establishment. A calf yields sufficient lymph for vaccinating 400 or 500 children, and more than 30,000 children have been vaccinated by Dr Cory from calf to arm since the station was started. The effects of lymph from the calf and of lymph from the infant are identical; he failed in twenty-two cases out of 5005 at the first trial, but succeeded the second time. Five vesicles are produced on each child, and the insertion success with calf-to-arm lymph is the same as that with human arm-to-arm vaccination, 96.7 per cent. Only about 1 per cent. of the cases were brought back for sore arms,' and these were mainly due to improper applications, plasters, &c. Out of 32,000 cases there were also thirty-eight cases of eczema and lichen, and sixteen of erysipelas. Re-vaccination. The claim first made on behalf of vaccination was that of equal immunity from smallpox as compared with the immunity resulting from inoculation,' without the danger of spreading infection. The protection was originally expected to last a lifetime, but now re-vaccination is thought advisable as early as ten years if in presence of smallpox. Re-vaccination, as a rule, gives protection for the remainder of life. Assuming that the State intends to compel complete insusceptibility, compulsory re-vaccination would be necessary. The impermanence of infantile vaccination has been ascribed to deterioration of the lymph in successive generations; but mere number of generations does not make it less effective any more than passing the contagion of smallpox through a great many generations diminishes its virulence. In 1887 in the smallpox hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board out of 53,000 cases of smallpox treated 41,061 had been vaccinated. No case of smallpox has occurred during fifty years among nurses and attendants at smallpox hospitals who have been re-vaccinated before going on duty. Protective Power of Vaccination.-The report (1884) of Sir George Buchanan shows the vast superiority as a protective against smallpox of public vaccination as compared with private vaccination, which is not supervised. Before vaccination was made compulsory, the smallpox mortality in England was double that of any other European state where it was compulsory, and 70 to 80 per cent. of the smallpox mortality in Great Britain and Ireland occurred under five years of age. Since the Vaccination Act of 1871 was passed, the smallpox mortality in the whole country has been greatly reduced, especially in the case of young children. The decennial reports for 1851-60 and 1861-70 show that the actual rates of smallpox mortality, at ages five and upwards, remained at a stand-still, and that the rates under five years had enormously decreased. Study of the London epidemics of 1876-78 and 1881-82 showed that the marked increase of smallpox at ages over five had really been the expression of an alteration in the behaviour of smallpox in this country. Statistics show that the fatality of smallpox varies (1) with the amount of vaccination possessed by the individual; (2) according to the age of those attacked; (3) according to the quality of the vaccination scars in those attacked. In addition to Mr Marson's well-known tables, Dr Gayton's report to the Metropolitan Asylums Board of 10,403 cases of smallpox shows the fatality per cent. of the attacks. He divides the scars according as they are 'good' or 'imperfect.' With four "good" scars there is an absolute immunity from death up to the age of fifteen, and with "good" scars, whether one, two, or three, there is an absolute immunity of death from smallpox up to the age of five.' When all the 'good' and 'imperfect' vaccinations are grouped together, it shows that from ten to fifteen and from fifteen to twenty years of age the 'good'

;

In

vaccination afforded just three times the amount of protection against smallpox death that the 'imperfect' vaccination afforded. The protection against attack is of chief avail in the first few years after vaccination, and infantile vaccination cannot be relied on as lasting through adult life. According to Dr Gayton, whereas there was no death amongst those under five years who had 'good' vaccination, the percentage was 56.5 amongst the unvaccinated; from five to ten the corresponding figures were 9 and 35-2, from thirty to forty 9.5 and 40 7 per cent., and over forty 125 and 43. From Dr Barry's report on the Sheffield epidemic, it appears that the rate of attack among the vaccinated and unvaccinated of the population generally is one attack among the vaccinated under ten years of age for every twenty attacks among the unvaccinated and over ten years one attack among the vaccinated for every five unvaccinated attacks. In invaded houses, irrespective of quality of vaccination, there were under ten years one vaccinated to eleven unvaccinated attacks; and over ten years one vaccinated to 24 unvaccinated attacks. the children under ten years of age, where there was no visible mark, or one cicatrix only, 757 per cent. had discrete or mild attacks, and 24-3 confluent or severe attacks; where there were two cicatrices, the corresponding figures were 88 and 12; where three cicatrices, 95 and 5; where four or more cicatrices, 975 and 2.5. The fatality per cent. was shown to vary according to the amount of vaccination as shown by the cicatrices without reference to their quality. With increased number and better quality of the scars produced the severity and fatality of smallpox has decreased. Diminution in the amount of fatality and mortality corresponds with the nearness of the time to the vaccination at which the patient was attacked by smallpox. The greatest protection against attack is found near to the operation of primary vaccination or re-vaccination. The greater the remoteness from the date of vaccination, the greater has been the incidence of smallpox and the fatality upon those attacked. The safeguarding is essentially in the years immediately subsequent to vaccination, and the gain especially as regards infant life. Were this decline due to improved sanitation, we should naturally expect the fall to be shared by persons of all ages. During 1872-87 the fall in the general death-rate has been 9 per cent., and in other zymotic diseases 9 per cent. for measles and 1 per cent. for hooping-cough, as compared with 72 per cent. for smallpox. The fall in 'fever' mortality has been nearly as much, but it has been at all ages.

Objections to vaccination are made on the ground of alleged injurious effects resulting from the practice. Complaints of public vaccination in England and Wales in 1888 were only ten in number out of 689,323 children vaccinated. Inquiry by medical inspectors showed two of these cases to be measles and hooping-cough concurrent with vaccination, two to be skin eruptions following on vaccination, and the remainder to be cases of erysipelas or other similar disease. The Registrargeneral reports that in from forty to fifty cases annually vaccination is mentioned among the causes of death, and from 1888 onwards all such cases were to be made the subject of careful investigation. Most of the accounts of vaccinal accidents' come from abroad. In 1883 certain cases of erysipelas followed the vaccination of soldiers at Dortrecnt, Holland, with humanised lymph received from a vaccination office. Seven men were attacked three days after the operation, and three died; but no official report of the cases has been published, and it is uncertain whether other cases of erysipelas were prevailing at the time. The risk of erysipelas

brighter round the negative electrode, but being separated from it by a thin dark layer. The discharge is repelled, attracted, or made to turn round a magnet brought near it in the same way as a perfectly flexible current-bearing conductor would be. If any fluorescent substances, such as a solution of sulphate of quinine, or uranium glass, be placed round the rarefied gas, these will glow brightly with their own fluorescence-colours, under the influence of the ultra-violet rays, in which the light of the discharge is rich. If a part of the tube be narrow the glow is broken up into discs or striæ, the cause of which is not clear. These striæ can in some cases be rendered less numerous and at a greater distance from one another by slowing the frequency of oscillatory discharge of each make-andbreak of the induction coil. This can be done by interposing in the circuit a coil of numerous convolutions. The stria are, however, observed when the current is apparently continuous, as when the source of electricity is a battery of 500 or more Daniell's cells. Gassiott inferred that the discharge of the battery itself through a rarefied gas is not continuous but intermittent. The number and position of the striæ is altered by altering the resistance in the circuit. If the discharge is rapidly and regularly intermittent the glow is sensitive to the approach of a conductor connected with the earth or a large condenser, and is repelled or attracted thereby according to the arrangement of the apparatus. It is not necessary that the platinum terminals should be in contact with the wires of an electric circuit; it is sufficient to put them to widely different potentials, as by lowering the tube into the electric field between the knobs of a Holtz machine: the residual gas then glows without contact. The same thing occurs when the field is one of high potential and rapid alternation. If the vacuum be reduced to both of an atmosphere the current will not pass and there is no glow. At about one-millionth of an atmosphere the molecules become so few that there are very few collisions between them. There is no light produced in the body of the gas unless these collisions occur. If the tube be less in its dimensions than the mean free path (see GAS) of the molecules the first collision of any given molecule leaving the negative electrode will probably be against the glass of the tube itself. The glass accordingly begins to glow with a bright phos. phorescent light, but only at such points as can be reached by molecules leaving the negative electrode at right angles and travelling in straight lines. If the negative electrode be so formed as to concentrate the molecular impact upon a diamond it will shine with a green light equal to that of a candle; a ruby or aluminum oxide, bright red; glass, green. The position of the positive electrode appears to have no bearing on the phenomenon. Since the molecules travel in straight lines, any solid obstacle will cast a shadow, and the molecules exert mechanical force when they strike (see RADIOMETER); and they also produce heat which can, when they are concentrated upon a point, melt glass or even a piece of metallic iridio-platinum. The position of the glows is altered in such a way as to show that the moving molecules, electrically charged, are deflected when a magnet is brought near the stream. If there be two parallel streams from two negative electrodes, they, being similarly charged with electricity, repel one another. These are phenomena of Radiant Matter or the ultra-gaseous state (Crookes) in which the ordinary properties of gases (see GAS) are profoundly modified by the absence of collisions between the molecules. The reader will find an excellent account of the phenomena of vacuum-tubes, with numerous illustrations, in J. E. H. Gordon's Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii.

Vagrants, a very numerous class of homeless persons roaming about the country, and from town to town, subsisting chiefly upon what they can beg or steal. In Great Britain it is reckoned that there are at least 60,000 vagrants. The nomadic life led by these waifs seems to possess a charm for them which proves irresistible, and they very rarely settle down to a regular occupation after they have been any length of time wandering. Vagrants have been known as a class for many centuries; and in almost every part of the world evidence has been obtained of the existence from remote times of wandering beggars whose mode of life bears striking resem blance to that of the vagrant of the present day. The Gypsies (q.v.), while having many of the same characteristics, do not usually associate with the ordinary vagrants, but belong to a class quite distinct and exclusive.

One of the most interesting and instructive records to be found concerning vagrancy is the Liber Vagatorum, The Book of Vagabonds and Beggars, edited by Martin Luther, and published in 1529 (Eng. trans. 1860). In it he gives a minute description of the various kinds of vagrants who were then known in the north of Europe, which may be condensed as follows:

(1) Beggars, or those who plainly and simply went about asking alms. (2) Bread-gatherers, who went about with their wives and children with them, dressed in ragged garments, collecting food, &c. These carried cooking utensils, &c. as a part of their equipment, and neither they nor their children ever left off begging from their infancy to the day of their death. (3) Liberated prisoners, who excused themselves for begging by saying they had been unjustly deprived of their liberty and character, and thus prevented from earning a dif ferent livelihood. (4) Cripples, many of whom shammed lameness or deformity. (5) Church mendicants, producing false credentials to show that they were collecting alms for religious purposes. (6) Learned beggars, young scholars or students, who said they had naught on earth but the alms wherewith people helped them, and which they would use in furthering their studies for the church or some of the professions. (7) Pretended murderers, who asserted that they had taken a man's life away, and had afterwards been seized by remorse, though it was in self-defence, and that this had driven them to a wandering life. (8) Wives of the above. (9) Lepers, or those suffering from loathsome diseases. (10) Spurious beggars, who pretended that like the Capuchin friars they were voluntarily poor. (11) Pretended noblemen and knights, who travelled about well dressed, saying that they had suffered by war, fire, or captivity, or had been driven away and lost all they had. (12) Pretended merchants, who produced documents to show that they had been possessed of merchandise which they had lost. (13) Baptised Jewesses who had turned Christians. (14) Pretended pilgrims. (15) Beggars suffering with sores. (16) Strollers professing to country-people that they were possessed of magic power, and could prevent murrain, &c. (17) Knaves with falling sickness, who took fits and assumed sudden illness. (18) Invalids alleging that they had suffered for years with incurable ailments, or whose wives or families were alleged to be so afflicted. (19) False begging priests. (20) Blind beggars. (21) Naked beggars, whose apparel was so very scanty as to arouse universal pity. (22) Silly or half-witted beggars, who, while apparently bereft of some of their mental faculties, were generally more knave than fool.' (23) Hangmen, who had given over their hateful avocation. (24) Women so clothed as to lead to the