Warming. Warm-blooded animals require for health a certain temperature of the body, variable only within certain limits. If the external temperature become too high, the temperature of the body is regulated by perspiration and respiration; if it become low the bodily activity is increased, and the temperature thus kept up. Under ordinary circumstances, however, man needs to protecting a fire it ought to be borne in mind that when himself against excessive cooling, in order that he may lead the comparatively quiescent life of civil isation; he needs houses and clothing. If this precaution be neglected his vitality sinks; and as the external temperature falls the death-rate rises, which shows that there is a certain amount either of neglect or inability, or both, to take the measures necessary to avoid undue cooling of the body. This undue cooling may be avoided in two ways-by extra clothing or by artificial heating of apartments. In southern Europe and in China the former is the plan resorted to; in countries where | fuel is not scarce the latter plan, which is preferable, is adopted. The objects of artificial heating are the temperature most congenial to the human constitution, pure air to breathe, and air not too warm or dry. If the body be kept sufficiently warm the air which | we breathe may be fairly cool; and an ideal system of warming would warm the body and leave the air cool and pure. The actual methods of warming are, to a greater or less extent, compromises, and they depend mainly either upon radiation of heat or upon convection of heat, or both. The former method is that of the open fire; the latter is, in the main, that of stoves, gas, steam, and hot water. In the former the walls and furniture of the room are warmed, while the air is not warmed directly by the fire, for the radiant heat streams through it without warming it; in the latter the air itself is warmed directly. In the former the walls are, so far as the fire is concerned, warmer than the air; in the latter the reverse is the case. In the former (the open fire) there is no tendency to deposition of moisture from the air upon the walls, unless the air becomes laden with excess of moisture from extraneous causes, such as the presence of a numerous assemblage, or unless the air becomes chilled and deposits its moisture even upon somewhat warmer walls; in the latter case, the walls being cooler than the air, there is a continuous tendency to the deposition of moisture on the walls, unless the air is at some distance from its saturation point. Heating by radiation is best exemplified by the open fire with a chimney or in the open air. The drawbacks of the open fire burning in a grate are the waste of fuel through imperfect combustion, the production of smoke, the comparatively small radiative power of flame (a blazing fire having less effect than a glowing one), the warming of surrounding objects on one side only, the want of an equably maintained temperature, and the waste of heat, which escapes with the smoke and chimney-gases. Its advantages are the satisfaction of the eye, cool air to breathe, and the ventilation produced. Smoke may be diminished and radiation increased by an extended use of coke; but coke does not do well if the fire burns low, and a blower should be used to make the fire draw quickly and become bright. A forced draught should always be used for a few minutes while lighting a fire; the amount of smoke produced is very materially diminished by this means. The forced draught is secured by narrowing the front aperture so that all the air which reaches the chimney must have passed through the fuel. If the aperture in front of the fire be large, air passes up to the chimney in front of the fire-gases, and the combustion is relatively slow. Dr Arnott (q.v.) developed the principle of limiting the access of air to the fuel by enclosing a store of fuel in an iron box beneath the grate, and bringing this gradually to the top by pushing up a false bottom; the air got access to the fire only at and near the top, and if the fire were left to itself it smouldered for many hours, ready to brighten up when it was pushed up so that air might gain freer access to it. In tendthe fire cannot radiate light it cannot radiate heat, and that it is therefore absurd to hide the fire under opaque masses of coal; and secondly, that the products of distillation of coal ought not to be allowed to escape as black smoke, but should pass up through a bright portion of the fire, and be perfectly burned. In special hearths it is possible, by means of false bottoins, to introduce fresh charges of coal underneath the existing fire so that the outer surface of the fire is always clear and bright. Even in ordinary grates it is possible to do a good deal towards minimising smoke and confining the active portion of the fire to the top and front; if, for example, a tile be fitted in the bottom of the grate; if a substantial amount of fuel be put in the grate and lit at the top; if this fuel contain some Broken coke or cinder; if fresh fuel be added, not by throwing it on the top, but by raking the fire forward, throwing the fresh fuel into the hollow thus produced at the back of the fire, and then pushing the bright fire back upon it; if these things be done the fire is obviously brighter and more continuously cheerful and more nearly smokeless. The fire should always be bounded by firebrick behind and on each side, for iron chills and blackens it. The fire-gases should not be allowed to escape at once into the chimney up a sloping iron back; but the back of the grate should be fire-brick all the way up, and should overhang the fire so that the ascending fire-gases impinge on it; by this means the throat' of the chimney is prevented from being excessively wide, the back-brick absorbs heat from the fire-gases and radiates it towards the floor, and the back-brick also reflects towards the room the heat radiated upwards from the top of the fire. For similar reasons the regulator or register should slope forwards. In every case, however, where there is flame there is great loss of heat, which escapes up the chimney, and even where the fire is smokeless this loss is considerable. The heat which is radiated into the apartment is never more than a fraction of the total heat of combustion of the fuel; and plans have been devised (see VENTILATION) for recovering some of this heat by causing it to warm the air which is supplied to the apartment. In the more primitive plans in which there is no ventilation-an open fire in a cave, a tent, a wigwam, or a cabin, or a charcoal brazier in a room with a chimney, or a gas o petroleum stove isolated in a room-the whole heat of combustion of the fuel may be utilised in warming the walls and air of the room; but the products of combustion vitiate the air. Warming of this kind is effected by gas-burners and petroleum-lamps, which raise the temperature very considerably in non-ventilated rooms, but seriously vitiate the air at the same time. By the use of close stoves the actual vitiation of the air by products of combustion is in great part avoided. The Dutch stove, for example, is a hollow cylinder or other form of iron, standing on a stone slab on the floor, close at the top, and having bars at the bottom on which the fire rests. The door by which the coals are put in being kept shut, the air for combustion enters below the grate; and a pipe issuing from near the top carries the smoke into a flue in the wall. If this pipe be made long enough the fire-gases traversing it may be very materially cooled down before they enter (100° C.) until it is wholly converted into water at 212° F.; overheating is thus not possible unless the steam is itself superheated at a high pressure. The pipes must be so laid, in the case of a building, that all condensed water may flow back into the boiler, and allowance must be made for expansion of the pipes by heat. When hot water is employed it may be made to circulate either at low pressure or at high pressure. the chimney, and thus the bulk of the heat of combustion remains in the room. As far as mere temperature is concerned, this is a most effective and economical warming arrangement; but it has serious faults. The iron often becomes red-hot or even hotter; any carbonic oxide existing inside as the result of an inadequate draught passes through hot iron and acts as a slow poison, causing anæmia; the dust in the air is charred when it approaches the hot metal, and gives rise to offensive and un- In low-pressure systems the arrangement may be wholesome odours; the air is rendered very 'dry' illustrated by the figure, in which a is a boiler; b is by being strongly heated. These faults are more a tube which circulates through or less obviated by increasing the mass and the the building; c is a small tank cooling surface of the stove so that it cannot at the top of the circuit and become too hot externally when a moderate fire is open to the air, by which the kept up within; by regulating the fire; by adjust- tubes and boiler are kept full; ing the fire-capacity of the stove itself; by allow-d is the return tube. When the ing the access of sufficient air to ensure complete combustion; by surrounding the fire with brick instead of iron, or building the whole stove of brick or earthenware; and by placing a vessel of water upon the stove, the water evaporated from which may supply the moisture necessary to bring the air to a congenial degree of saturation, appropriate to its new temperature. If this vessel of water be placed upon the stove the air takes up moisture from the evaporating pan, and does not then parch the skin and lungs; but when the room cools down again the air may readily prove supersaturated, and deposit moisture on the walls, a condition favourable to mould. In most continental stoves the fire is surrounded by a mass of brick, lined externally with porcelain. The smoke goes along a winding passage in the structure and issues nearly cold. The brickwork becomes warmed, and keeps up a moderate heat for a long time after the fuel has burned out. Open-fire stoves have also been devised; and an open fire-grate might be built out into a room at a distance from the wall, and the flue might go at once into the chimney, or go up an ornamental column through the room above. By such means the waste heat of the chimney would be utilised in warming the air of the apartments. Gas-stoves have come into considerable vogue of late years. They depend either upon radiation from luminous flames or from asbestos heated by Bunsen Burners (q.v.), or upon heating of a metal casing by Bunsen burners with or without direct contact between flame and casing. Bunsen flames are in themselves of no use for pure radiation, and bare flames without ventilation simply heat the air by pouring hot water-vapour and carbonic acid into it, as any other fuel would do. In gas stoves as much as in open fires the products of combustion, though they are invisible, must be taken out of the room, and the means of access of these products to the chimney must be ample. The air of apartments is also frequently warmed by steam or hot-water pipes: these are iron pipes containing hot steam or hot water, and warm externally by reason of the heat-conductivity of the metal. Air coming in contact with them is warmed and ascends, its place being taken by cooler and heavier air, which in its turn ascends. The whole air thus becomes warmed. Radiation from the pipes is also favoured by a coat of paint, not by a smooth metallic surface. These systems lend themselves readily to distribution of heat through out a building from one central fireplace. The pipes can be so arranged that the steam or water can be shut off from any part at will; and the tubes may, by being connected with or attached to plates or wings of metal, have their heating surface and their heating efficiency increased. Steam heating is useful where there is waste steam available, as in factories and railway trains. As long as steam goes on condensing it remains at 212° F. boiler is heated the heaviest · The advantages of the high-pressure system are the use of smaller pipes, which are more convenient and more seemly; the possibility of making them dip without risk of the bends being blocked by air (the removal of which must, on the lowpressure system, be provided for and attended to); the ease of application of radiating surfaces to the smaller tubes; the yielding of the system by alternate compression and release of the air in the expansion-tube, which acts as an elastic cushion and tends to prevent fracture; the small quantity of water used, the rapidity of circulation and the consequent promptness of action; the freedom from any access of dirt to clog the tubes; and the advantageous form of the boiler-coil as a rapid heater. The disadvantages are the quick cooling down when the fire goes down and the want of uniformity of temperature when the fire fluctuates, the uncomfortable heat of the pipes when touched, the fact that the pipes must be kept at a greater distance from plants, the slight charring of dust in the air, the slight charring of some kinds of wood laid too near the pipes, and the greater chance of freezing if the fire goes out. For the last reason the pipes should be charged not with water but with a nonfreezing solution. In a modification of the system specially applicable to cases in which portions of the system are to be shut off from time to time, there are outlet and inlet safety valves to let hot water out or cold water in when the pressures are greater or less than certain limiting values. In that case the expansion-pipe is often dispensed with. In these cases the air which is in the room is heated. The heating of air to be brought into a room will be found under VENTILATION. Small spaces may sometimes be warmed by the introduction of hot water, as railway carriages by hot-water tins. Better than hot water is a tin case filled with crystallised acetate of soda; this is exposed to heat until it becomes warm; the heat absorbed is partly expended in melting the acetate, which then dissolves in its own water of crystallisation; the mass therefore absorbs much heat; and as it cools down it keeps on liberating its latent heat for a protracted period. As to conserving the warmth of a room by preventing heat from escaping, the leading methods are to make the walls, doors, &c. bad conductors and air-tight. Air-tightness is incompatible with ventilation, but bad conduction is desirable both in winter and summer. The best material for a badly-conducting wall is one of a porous or spongy texture, such as porous stone or brick, which contains air in its interstices; but the best structural form is that which contains a film or jacket of air. Even iron houses may be made warm in winter by this means, if plaster-lined. Windows, again, if made double-double panes or, better, double sashes-allow very much less heat to escape than single ones, and even window-blinds and curtains have to a smaller extent the same action. The intervening air-film or layer is prevented from flowing away, and it is a very bad conductor. See Edwards on Ventilation and Heat (Longmans, 1881), and Dye's edition of C. Hood's Warming Buildings (1891), and literature there cited. See also FUEL. Warminster, an ancient market-town of Wiltshire, on the west border of Salisbury Plain, and 19 miles NW. of Salisbury. It has a town-hall (1831); a free school (1707), at which Bishop Hampden and Dr Arnold were pupils; and a theological college (1860). The Marquis of Bath's seat, Longleat, 4 miles SW., is one of the noblest Elizabethan mansions in the kingdom, with a fine collection of portraits, memories of Bishop Ken, and a magnificent park. Pop. (1851) 6285; (1891) 5562. See J. T. Daniell's History of Warminster (1879). Warneck, GUSTAV, theologian, was born at Naumburg in Germany, March 6, 1834, studied at Halle, and became pastor at Rothenschirmbach near Eisleben (1874). Editor of a Missions-Zeitschrift, he has written many books and papers on missions, those translated into English being Modern Missions and Culture (1883) and Outline of the History of Protestant Missions (1884). Warner, CHARLES DUDLEY, American author, was born at Plainfield, Massachusetts, 12th September 1829, graduated in 1851 at Hamilton, and in law at the University of Pennsylvania in 1856, practised in Chicago till 1860, and then settled as an editor at Hartford. In 1884 he became coeditor of Harper's Magazine, to which his papers on the South, on Mexico, and the Great West have been contributed. In 1873 he wrote with Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain') The Gilded Age; before that he had published My Summer in a Garden (1870) and Back-log Studies (1872). Other works are Being a Boy (1877), Washington Irving in his Men of Letters' series (1881), various books of travel, &c. Warner, SUSAN, authoress, born at New York, 11th July 1819, published under the pen name of Elizabeth Wetherell her first novel, The Wide, Wide World, in 1851. It proved, next to Uncle Tom's Cabin, the most successful of American stories, and owes nothing to either its subject or its incidents. Queechy followed the year after, The Hills of Shatemuc in 1856, The Old Helmet in 1863, Melbourne House in 1864, Daisy in 1868, and A Story of Small Beginnings in 1872. Her other works were mostly religious. She died at Highland Falls, New York, 17th March 1885. War Office. See WAR. Warping, a method of improving land by distributing on it, by embankments, canals, flood-gates, &c., the alluvial mud brought down by rivers. cases. Warrant, an authorisation from the proper authority to a person to do something which he has not otherwise a right to do. The more formal warrants are under the hand and seal of the person granting them. The kinds of warrants are innumerable-informal instruments authorising a person to receive money or goods, such as dockwarrants, dividend-warrants, share-warrants, and formal legal warrants used in civil and criminal Warrant of attorney is dealt with at ATTORNEY. The more important judicial warrants are the bailiff's-warrant, the sheriff's authorisation to a bailiff to execute a writ; the warrant to answer, issued by a justice of the peace, for the apprehension of a person accused of an indictable offence; the bench-warrant, issued by the court before which an indictment has been found, to arrest the accused; and the warrant of deliverance, for discharging from prison a person who has been bailed. General warrants, issued against no one person named, but against all persons suspected, were formerly in use, and proved an instrument of oppres sion; in the case of Wilkes, such a general warrant issued by a secretary of state to search for and seize the papers of the author (not named) of a seditious libel was decided to be illegal. In Scotland, after the declaration of an accused person has been made, if there be reasonable grounds of suspicion against him, the magistrate grants a warrant, the warrant of commitment, sending him to prison to abide the result of his trial. By statute 1701, chap. 6, this warrant must be in writing and duly signed; it must specify the particular offence charged, and must proceed on a signed information. There are, further, the distress-warrant, issued for raising a sum of money upon the goods of a party specified in the warrant ; and the search-warrant, granted by a justice of the peace to a constable to enter the premises of a person suspected of secreting stolen liquors, &c. contrary to law. Contrary to a comgoods, or of keeping gunpowder, nitro-glycerine, mon impression, no special warrant is required for being simply the calendar of the prisoners' names, capital punishment, the so-called death-warrant with their punishments on the margin, signed by the judge. In the United States warrants must not issue save on probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, describing the person to be arrested or the place to be searched. Warrant-officers. The highest ranks to which seamen under ordinary circumstances can attain are those of warrant-officers and chief warrant-officers. They are divided into three classesgunners, boatswains, and carpenters, the gunners taking precedence of the other two. Of late years their pay and position have been greatly improved, while their sphere of duties has been much enlarged. They now rise from 5s. 6d. per diem, when they first receive their warrant, to 7s. 6d. per diem, and to 9s. on promotion to chief warrant-officer, exclusive of any extra allowances to which they may be entitled for performing special duties. merly, before ironclads superseded wooden ships, there was only one officer of this rank of each For WARRANTY class carried on board even the largest ships. Now, in addition to the officer of each class appointed to carry out the special duties of gunner, boatswain, and carpenter on board every ship, there are usually three or four junior gunners or boatswains appointed to battle-ships and some of the larger of other classes of ships to perform what are called quarter-deck duties, in addition to which in many of the larger ships an extra gunner or boatswain is appointed for torpedo-duties. A certain proportion of these officers who have duly qualified in navigation are now appointed to command torpedo boats, and in war-time they will unquestionably be largely employed on that service. The warrant-officers of the present day are for their station a most highly educated and most efficient body of men. On the occasion of the Queen's jubilee in 1887 two of this rank were promoted to lieutenants for distinguished service before the enemy during the Egyptian war of 1882-85; and a limited number of the chief warrant officers who have a specially good record of service are also allowed on retirement to assume that rank. Warrant-officers rank with, but before, midshipmen and with second-lieutenants in the army; chief warrant-officers with, but after, sublieutenants in the navy and lieutenants in the army; they can rise to a maximum pension of £150 a year, and their widows are also entitled to a small pension. For Warrant officers in the army, see NON-COMMISSIONED Officers. : On a Warranty, in English law, is a promise to secure a person in the enjoyment of a right transferred to him. According to ancient rules of procedure, a person whose title was questioned might vouch another to warranty-i.e. call upon him to make good the guarantee he had given; the vouchee on his appearance stepped into the place of the original defendant. As applied to land the term is now obsolete, but in the mercantile law warranties are still of great importance. contract of sale, e.g., the general rule is caveat emptor let the buyer look to himself a person who sells a thing in its natural state, having no better means of information than the purchaser, is not taken to warrant the quality of the article; he is not liable to make good any defects unless he has been guilty of fraud or dishonest concealment. But where the purchaser has to rely on the vendor the law will generally imply a warranty. Thus, a person selling goods for a particular purpose is usually taken to warrant that they are suitable for that purpose; a dealer in provisions, for instance, warrants them to be wholesome and fit for food. If the goods are unsuitable, it sometimes happens that the purchaser has two courses open to him: he may reject the goods as not corresponding to the contract, or he may accept the goods and sue the vendor for damages for breach of warranty. On a sale by a manufacturer, he is taken to warrant that the goods are of his own manufacture, unless the usage of trade is to the contrary; on a sale by sample there is an implied warranty that the bulk corresponds to the sample in quality and condition. A seller is held to warrant his right to sell; if he is not in fact the owner of what he sells he may have to pay damages if the true owner claims the property from the purchaser; but a seller with a doubtful title may protect himself by agreeing to transfer such rights as he has. rule of law is sometimes expressed by saying that a seller is not liable in respect of patent defects (i.e. such as the buyer might discover by the exercise of his own judgment), but only for latent defects (i.e. defects known to the vendor which the purchaser has no means of discovering). A warranty must of course be carefully distinguished from a mere expression of opinion about the thing The sold. An agent or servant has no right to give a warranty unless he is authorised to do so. On the sale of a horse, the purchaser must make proper inquiry and investigation; if the horse turns out restive or unmanageable, he cannot recover damages unless the seller has given him an press warranty to the contrary. ex Unsoundness in horses is a relative term, and difficult to define; but the rule is that, if at the time of sale the horse has any disease which either actually does diminish its natural usefulness so as to make it less capable of performing the work it is intended for, or which in an ordinary course may hereafter diminish its usefulness, or if either from disease or accident it has undergone any alteration of structure that either actually at the time does, or may in its ordinary course, diminish the animal's usefulness, such a horse is unsound. Veterinarians of experience recognise two conditions under the term sound, and two converse ones under that of unsoundness. The first is recognised under the appellation of 'legally sound,' and is thus defined by Baron Parke. I think the word sound means what it expresses-viz. that the animal is sound and free from disease at the time he is warranted.' Now experience is opposed to this, as many, perhaps the majority, of horses have evidence of disease or of the results or products of disease or accident in some part or parts of the body; or they may have some infirmity, such as being slight roarers' or whistlers, or have slight stringhalt, which renders them legally unsound. Such horses if warranted sound are returnable; but they may nevertheless be what is termed serviceably sound-that is to say, fit to perform the work for which they are bought. Or again, a horse may have a bone spavin; now a bone spavin is looked upon as a disease, and a spavined horse is considered unsound. But if he is free from lameness and have good hock action, in the opinion of many veterinarians he is serviceably sound. And pathological investigation has confirmed this view, for it has discovered that the enlargement-the bone spavin or exostosis-is composed of reparative material, by which the actual disease has been cured. Then again there are what are denominated hereditary unsoundnesses,' and the following are officially recognised by the R. A.S. E.: roaring and whistling, bone and bog spavins, side-bones and ring-bones, stringhalt, cataract, and navicular disease. See Anson, Law of Contract; Chalmers, Sale of Goods; Oliphant, Law of Horses; and Ross Stewart, Law of Horses (1892). Guaranty (q.v.), etymologically the same word as warranty, has a different sense in law. Warren is a place kept for the purpose of breeding game or rabbits. In its strict legal sense a right of free warren (extending to hares, rabbits, partridges, pheasants, and sometimes quails, woodcocks, and water-fowl) can only be derived by grant from the crown, and gives certain privileges to the warrener as to recovering game and destroying dogs which infest it. Warren, (1) capital of Trumbull county, Ohio, 52 miles by rail SE. of Cleveland, with rolling and flour mills, and manufactories of linseed-oil, cottons, &c. Pop. 5973.-(2) Capital of Warren county, Pennsylvania, on the Alleghany River, 66 miles by rail SE. of Erie. It manufactures engines and boilers, wooden wares, and leather, and has a trade in lumber and petroleum. Pop. 5288. Warren, SAMUEL, novelist, was born in Denbighshire, 23d May 1807. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and law at the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar in 1837. He was made a Queen's Counsel (1851), was Recorder of Hull (1854-74), represented Midhurst in the Conservative interest (1856-59), and then he was appointed one of the two Masters of Lunacy. His Passages from the Diary of a Late Physician (1832) had been contributed to Blackwood's Magazine, as also was Ten Thousand a Year (1841), the amusing story of 'Tittlebat Titmouse.' By these he is chiefly remembered; but he published a dozen more works, including Now and Then (1847), The Lily and the Bee (1851), and several law-books. He died in London, 29th July 1877. Warrington, a municipal and parliamentary borough and manufacturing town of Lancashire, on the right bank of the Mersey, 18 miles E. of Liverpool, 16 WSW. of Manchester, and 182 NW. of London. Though of recent development, it is an ancient place, the Wallintun of Domesday; and, acquiring strategic importance through its bridge (1496) over the Mersey, it was the scene of defeats of the Scots (1648), the royalists (1651), and a portion of Prince Charles Edward's forces (1745). To a dissenting academy, founded in 1757, it owes its memories of Drs Aikin, Priestley, Taylor, &c.; and Lucy Aikin was a native. There are still some old timbered houses; and the parish church, St Elphin's, with a spire 300 feet high, is a fine cruciform Decorated structure, restored in 1859-67 at a cost of over £15,000. The town hall was the former seat (1750) of Col. Wilson Patten, purchased in 1872 for £20,000; and other buildings are the Royal Court Theatre (1862), post-office (1876), hospital (1876), museum and library (1857), school of art (1882), public baths (1866), grammarschool (1526; rebuilt 1857), &c. There are also public gardens and a park. The manufactures include iron, wire, pins, files, cottons, glass, leather, and soap. Warrington was constituted a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1832, and a municipal borough in 1847. Pop. (1851) 22,894; (1881) 45,253; (1891) 55,349, of whom 52,742 were within the municipal boundary. See a monograph on the worthies of Warrington by James Kendrick (1853), and others by William Beamont (Chetham Society, 1872-73) on an Augustinian friary founded in 1379, on the lords of Warrington, &c. Warsaw (Polish Warszawa), long the capital of Poland and now capital of a government of Russian Poland, stands on the left bank of the Vistula, 330 miles E. of Berlin by rail and 700 SW. of St Petersburg. It stands partly on a high plain, partly on the terraces sloping upwards from the left bank of the river, extends over a wide area, and consists of the city proper and a number of suburbs. Two iron bridges connect Warsaw with the suburb of Praga, on the right bank of the Vistula. Standing on a navigable river, with great railway lines to Moscow, St Petersburg, Vienna, Danzig, and Berlin, Warsaw is one of the most important in eastern Europe, being, next after Moscow and St Petersburg, the largest city in the empire. There is much trade in corn and flax exported, and in coal and manufactured goods imported. Warsaw has among its own manufactures those of electroplate, machinery, boots and leather goods, woollens, pianos, carriages, tobacco, sugar, chemicals, beer, and spirits. Of over one hundred Catholic churches the cathedral of St John is the most notable; there are also some half-dozen Greek churches, two Lutheran ones, and many synagogues. The castle is an imposing building, and contains many pictures and sculptures. There are innumerable private palaces or mansions, many of them fine. The university, suppressed in 1832, was reopened in 1864, and has seventy-five professors (who teach in Russian) and about 1000 students. There are various academies and museums, a school of arts, several theatres, and some fine public gardens. Pop. (1872) 276,000; (1891) 465,272. Area of government, 5623 sq. m.; pop. 1,465,131. The city of Warsaw has been closely identified historically with Poland, the insurrections against Russia hav ing generally had their headquarters here. See POLAND, RUSSIA. Wart. See WARTS. Wartburg. See EISENACH. Warthe, the Oder's chief affluent, rises on the south-west frontier of Poland, flows north and west into Prussia, then north (past Posen) and west again, and enters the Oder at Küstrin. Length, 445 miles (230 in Prussia, and 265 navigable). closely resembling the true hogs in most of their Wart-hog (Phacochorus), a genus of Suidæ, characters, and particularly in their feet, but remarkably differing from them in their dentition : the number of teeth is much reduced; the canines become the large tusks, and in the adult the last molar only is found in each jaw, which grows to an enormous size as in the elephant. The head is very large, and the muzzle very broad; the cheeks are furnished with large wart-like excrescences, so that the appearance is altogether very remarkable and uncouth. The species are all natives of Africa. They feed very much on the roots of plants, which they dig up by means of their enormous tusks. The African Wart-hog, or Haruja (P. aliani), a native of Abyssinia and of the central regions of Africa, from the coast of Guinea to that of Mozam bique, is nearly 4 feet long, with a naked slender tail of 1 foot, is scantily covered with long bristles of a light-brown colour, and has a mane sometimes 10 inches long, extending from between the ears Wart-hog (Phacocharus æthiopicus). along the neck and back. Another species is found in the south of Africa (P. aethiopicus), the Valke Vark of the Dutch colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. The incisors of the latter fall out at an early age, those of the former are persistent. A closely allied genus is Potamochoerus, of which there are several species, as the Bosch Vark of Cape Colony (P. africanus), which is nearly black, with whitish cheeks having a central black spot, and the Painted Pig of West Africa (P. penicil latus), which is reddish, with black face, forehead, and ears; another and less known species is P. edwardsi from Madagascar. The species of Potamochorus frequent swampy grounds, and sometimes receive the name of Water-hog. They have longer ears than the true wart-hogs, tapering and ending in a pencil of hairs; the face is elongated, and has a huge protuberance on each side. The flesh of all the wart-hogs and water-hogs is in high esteem. They are hunted by dogs, which are often killed in the encounter with them. They are much addicted to fighting among themselves. This genus differs from Sus in that there are only four young in a litter, and that one molar tooth in each jaw has disappeared. |