and weather, either on damp soils or dry | construct any such bridge, viaduct, or arch ones. To preserve buildings from the blackening influence of the smoke of large towns, Dr. Angus Smith has recommended the use of smooth bricks."Polished or glazed bricks," he says, "would render the rain capable of washing the carbon off, but certainly it will be much better not to allow it ever to arrive there. The importance of preserving the beauty of the original materials is daily increasing." Formerly a peculiar kind of brick (fornacea teste, or tiles) was bruised in vinegar, and the liquid used as a specific in cutaneous affectious. It entered into a cerate used for herpetic and other eruptions, &c. To the terra fornacum, or brick-earth, the same virtues were assigned. Hot bricks are sometimes used to apply heat to a part, as to the abdomen in colic, or after the operation for popli teal aneurism; or reduced to a very fine powder and mixed with fat, as an application to herpetic and psoric affections. Charcoal, coal, and some bituminous substance have been amalgamated together in the shape of bricks, and have been found a clean and economical fuel. They are retailed under the title of firebricks. Whether brick-making or brick-burning is a nuisance or not depends upon circumstances, nor is there any general rule as to distance from occupied houses laid down. An injunction was, however, granted in the case of Roberts r. Clarke (118 L. T., 49), in which the burning took place at 240 yards from habitations; and it is clearly established that the fumes from a brick-kiln reaching dwelling-houses are a nuisance (Evans v. Smith, Trinity Term, 1867). The principal cases, besides the two quoted, bearing upon brick-burning up to the present time, are Beardmore . Tredwell, injury to trees from brick-burning, injunction granted (31 L. J., Ch. 892; 7 L. T., 207); Cavey v. Leadbetter, allegation of convenience of place no answer to an action (32 L. J., C. P., 104; 13 C. B. (N. S.), 470; 3 F. and F., 14); Luscombe r. Steer, the brick-burning must be a material injury to property or personal comfort (17 L. T., 219; 15 W. R., 1191). at the expense of such proprietors; they may also, with the consent of two-thirds of their number, agree to pay, and may accordingly pay, any portion of the expenses of the construction or alteration of any such bridge, viaduct, or arch, or of the purchase of any adjoining lands required for the foundation and support thereof, or for the approaches thereto. Bromine so named from βρωμος, α stench-was discovered by Balard in 1826, in bittern. It is a dark-red volatile liquid, its properties resembling chlorine and iodine. Relative weight, 80; theoretic sp. gr. of vapour, 5528; observed, 5'54; sp. gr. of liquid at 32° F. (0° C.), 3'187. It is a disinfectant, and was used largely in the late not found much favour in this country, as American war for this purpose; but it has chlorine is more active, cheaper, and less irritating to the lungs. If required to be used, a solution of bromine in bromide of potassium is placed in saucers and exposed to the air. Bronzing-See TRADES, INJURIOUS, &c. Brose-Oatmeal stirred with boiling water until it has the consistence of hasty-pudding. This, more diluted and boiled for a short time, makes porridge. See OATMEAL. Broth-A very nutritious broth, containing the albumen of the meat as well as the soluble extract, is obtained by infusing a third of a pound of minced meat in 14 ounces of cold soft water, to which a few drops (4 or 5) of muriatic acid and a little salt (from 10 to 18 grains) have been added. After digesting for an hour or so, it should be strained through a sieve, and the residue washed with 5 ounces of water, and pressed. The mixed liquids thus obtained will furnish about a pint of cold extract of meat, containing the whole of the soluble constituents of the meat; and it may be drunk cold or slightly warmed, the temperature not being raised above 100° F., for fear of coagulating the albumen.(LETHEBY.) In broth we find the following substances: Albumen, gelatine, creatine, fatty matter, inosic acid, combined with baryta and potash; several complex extractive matters; lactates, phosphates, and chlorides, united with potash and soda, and sometimes traces of lime and free soda. Bridges-Any urban authority may agree with the proprietors of any canal, railway, or tramway to adopt and maintain any existing or projected bridge, viaduct, or arch within their district, over or under any such canal, railway, or tramway, and the ap- Brucia (Brucine) C23H26N2O42H2O—This proaches thereto, and may accordingly adopt alkaloid was discovered by Pelletier and and maintain the same as parts of public Caventon in the bark of Bruceæ antidysenstreets or roads maintainable and repair-terica. It is also associated with strychnine able at the expense of such urban authority; in Nux vomica. or such authority may themselves agree to Brucia crystallises in colourless transparent oblique rhombic prisms. When thrown down by ammonia from a solution of the acetate, it presents itself in long curved needles or in tufts.-(GUY.) Brucia dissolves in about 900 parts of water, 440 of ether, but is freely soluble in benzole, amylic alcohol, chloroform, and absolute alcohol. Brucia is distinguished from strychnine by the intense red colour it strikes with nitric acid. The further addition of protochloride of tin produces a violet shade. If this test is applied to a rather considerable quantity of brucine, a colourless gas is developed, with an odour of pommes de reinette, inflammable, burning with a greenish flame, and depositing crystalline orange red flakes, insoluble in water, and even in boiling alcohol.—(TARDIEU, Sur l'Empoisonnement.) Brucia is a violent poison. Its effects are very similar to those of strychnine. See STRYCHNIA. Brushmakers-Workers at this particular industry are subject, from the inhalation of dust, to phthisis. See PHTHISIS; TRADES, INJURIOUS, &c. Buckwheat The seed of Fagopyrum esculentum, cultivated in this country as food for pheasants, but largely used in North America for making buckwheat cakes," eaten at breakfast, &c. The following table gives its composition: The ash is about 1'09 per cent., and contains chiefly potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid. Buffalo Extract-An extract made principally in the Dutch East Indian possessions from the flesh of the buffalo, and sometimes exported to Holland. A sample of buffalo extract examined by Dr. Pott contained 20.9 per cent. water, 627 extractive, and 164 ash or mineral matter. Buildings-An urban sanitary authority has considerable power over buildings, especially the erection of new buildings. Some of these powers they possess under statutes, and others they can obtain by bylaws. See BY originally constructed as one dwelling-house only, are, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, 1875, to be considered "the erection of a new building."—(P. H., s. 159.) No house or building may be brought forward beyond the fronts of the houses in an urban district without the written consent of the urban authority, under a penalty of 40s. per day whilst the offence continues after written notice.-(P. H., s. 156.) The line of buildings is sometimes a matter of great dispute. The general line of buildings in a proceeding under the Metropolis Local Management Act, s. 7, was ultimately ruled by the Court of Queen's Bench "to be the general line as fixed by the superintending architect of the Metropolitan Board of Works." When a house or building situated in a street in an urban district has been taken down, the urban authority may prescribe the line in which the front of any building erected in its stead is to be built.-(P. H., s. 155.) An urban sanitary authority may make bylaws (1.) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, roofs, and chimneys of new buildings, for securing stability, the prevention of fires, and for purposes of health. (2.) With respect to the sufficiency of space about buildings to secure a free circulation of air, and with respect to ventilation. (3.) With respect to the drainage of buildings, the provision of water-closets, privies, ashpits, &c., and the closing of buildings or parts of buildings unfit for human habitation, and the prohibition of their use for such habitation. Bylaws made by urban authorities with regard to buildings under the 157th section of the Public Health Act are not to affect any building erected "in any place (which at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act was included in an urban sanitary district) before the Local Government Acts came into force in such place, or any building erected in any place (which at the time of the passing of this Act is not included in an urban sanitary district) before such place becomes constituted or included in an urban district, or by virtue of any order of the Local Government Board subject to this enactment."-(P. H., s. 157.) An urban sanitary authority has power to cause their surveyor to examine buildings and walls, and if they are in a dangerous and ruinous state, to give notice to the owner or occupier to take down, repair, or secure the building. On non-compliance, action is taken before two justices, who can make an order for the owner or occupier to do what is necessary; and on non-compliance, the sanitary authority has power to take down, repair, rebuild, or secure, and recover the expenses from the owner; and if he does not pay on demand, a justice may issue a warrant and levy by distress; and if the owner cannot be found, or sufficient distresses on his goods and chattels cannot be made, the authority, on giving twenty-eight days' notice, may sell or otherwise dispose of such building or land, and deduct the expense out of the compensation provided to the owner by the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, 1845. No building may be erected over a sewer without the written consent of the authority. -P. H., s. 26.) Any sanitary authority may provide buildngs for the disposal of sewerage. See BYLAWS, &c. Palmitic acid is derived from palmitine, a white solid fusing at 36° C. (96-8° F.) Stearic acid is derived from stearine, which is also a white solid, having a higher fusingpoint, viz., 63° C. (145 4° F.) Oleine is at ordinary temperatures an oily liquid, solidifying at 5° C. (410° F.) Butyric acid (CHO) occurs in no other fat except butter. It is a volatile liquid. Sp. gr., 098; relative weight, 44; boiling-point, 157° C. (314-6° F.) This acid is monobasic, and forms crystalline salts called butyrates. Caproic, capric, and caprylic acids are also volatile. Bromeis estimated the volatile acids in butter fat at 2 per cent., but Messrs. Angell and Hehner assert that butter fat contains nearly 10 per cent. of volatile acids. (Butter, its Analysis and Adulterations, by ARTHUR ANGELL and OTTO HEHNER.) 2. Water. The amount of water in normal Bunt (Uredo caries, DEC.; Uredo fœtides, BAYER)-A fungus found in wheat. It has an extremely repulsive odour. The spores, highly magnified, are easily recognised, for butter may vary from 5 to 18 per cent. If they are large and reticulated. Burgundy-See WINE. Burnett's Disinfecting Fluid—A concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. Sce DISINFECTANTS. - Business, Conduct of — Every urban authority is to maintain and provide from time to time offices for the conduct of business. Every urban authority, not being the council of a borough, is to hold an annual meeting, and a meeting for the transaction of business at least once a month.-(P. H., s. 199.) Every local authority is to make an annual report, in such form and at such time as the Local Government Board may from time to time direct, of all works executed by them during the preceding year, and of all sums received and disbursements made under and for the purposes of the Public Health Act, and must publish the same in some newspaper circulating in the district, and send a copy to the Local Government Board.-(P. H., s. 206.) For further information as to the conduct of business, see SANITARY AUTHORITIES, DISTRICTS, LOCAL BOARDS, &c. Butter-Butter principally consists of the fatty portions of cow's milk. By violently agitating cream, the oil globules of the cream break up, coalesce, and form a fatty mass, which is washed, pressed, worked up by the hand, and mixed with a small quantity of salt. Butter made in this way consists of fat, caseine, water, and salt. 1. The fat of butter consists of a mixture of the glycerides of the fatty acids, palmitic, stearic, and oleic, as well as butyric, caproic, caprylic, and capric acids. under 5 per cent., there is a suspicion of the butter having been adulterated with foreign fats containing no water; if above 18 per cent., water has probably been added, or the proper degree of pressure has not been applied to press the milk, &c., out. 3. Caseine. The caseine in butter varies from 2 to 5 per cent. An undue amount of caseine acts as a ferment, and induces decomposition. 4. Salt. The salt in butter averages 2.5 per cent.; in very salt butter it may be as high as 28'6 per cent.; it should never exceed 8 per cent.-(Op. cit., p. 8.) Fresh butter is of an equal colour throughout, and has an agreeable odour. Streaks indicate lard, and a sour smell imperfect washing. A knife thrust into rancid butter is due in great measure to changes in the acquires an unpleasant smell; the rancidity caseine. Such butter has been known to produce diarrhoea and indigestion. Methods for the Preservation of Butter.The Tartars and the French have been long in the habit of preserving butter by melting it with a moderate heat, whereby are coagulated the albuminous and curdy matters remaining in it, which are very putrescible. This fusion should be made by the heat of a warm bath about 176° F., continued for some time, to effect the more complete purification of the butter. If in this settled liquefied state it be carefully decanted, strained through a tammy-cloth, and slightly salted, it may be kept from six to nine months perfectly fresh. Dr. Anderson's plan for the preservation of butter is as follows: Take of saltpetre and white sugar, of each, 1 oz.; best Spanish great salt (or Cheshire large-grained salt) in very fine powder; mix thoroughly, and add all 1 oz. of this mixture to every pound of butter, | adulterate butter is as follows: The butter and thoroughly incorporate them together. The is brought to the melting point, water and butter thus prepared is then to be pressed salt are then stirred in until the mixture into clean glazed earthenware vessels, or well- becomes cold. The inferior kind of butter seasoned casks, so as to leave no vacuities. known as "bosh" (see BOSH BUTTER) is occaButter thus prepared, says Dr. Anderson, will sionally mixed with starch, generally potatokeep in a cool place for years, and will bear flour. The adulteration is only practised at a voyage to the East Indies if it be packed a certain time, and depends on the wholesale so that it does not melt. At the end of the price of butter. Sir John Gordon, Mayor of first three or four weeks it acquires a rich Cork, in his evidence before the Parliamentary marrow-like flavour, which no other butter Committee, mentions curds as an adulteration ever possesses. M. Breon recommends that to which butter is sometimes subjected. Aniwater acidulated slightly (3 grammes to 1 litre) mal fats are also occasionally used, such as with acetic or tartaric acid should be added lard, beef, mutton, veal, and horse fat. A to the butter, and the whole placed in a closeprocess has lately been devised by Mege fitting vessel. This plan appears to answer its Mouries (Pharmaceutical Journal, October purpose remarkably well. 1872) for mixing beef suet with butter. The common proportions of the best salt butter of the shops are-fresh butter, 21 lbs. ; salt, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1 oz.: or, fresh butter, 18 lbs. ; salt, 1 lb. ; saltpetre, 1 oz.; honey or fine brown sugar, 2 oz.; this latter is the best. The beef suet is melted in warm water, with carbonate of potash and portions of fresh sheep's stomachs. The fat, thus separated from the cellular tissue, is cooled and subjected to hydraulic pressure, when the oleomargarine is separated from the more solid Rancid butter may be restored, or in all stearine (which is used for candle-making) cases greatly improved, by melting it in a and mixed with milk, with a little of the water-bath with some fresh-burnt and coarsely-soluble matter obtained by soaking cows' powdered animal charcoal (which has been thoroughly freed from dust by sifting), and straining it through clean flannel. udders in milk, and with annatto, and is then churned. This process, it is obvious, could only be practised on a large scale. Scraped carrots and annatto are the common substances used to colour butter. There is a practice very prevalent of making from salt butter a so-called fresh butter. Irish salted butter of a very inferior quality is used for this purpose. This is repeatedly washed with water, in order to free it from the salt. This being accomplished, the next process is to wash it frequently with milk, and the manufacture is completed by the addition of a small quantity of sugar. Wheat-flour, oatmeal, pea-flour, &c., are also said to be used for the sophistication of butter, but such adulterations are extremely rare. M. Chevallier gives the following as a list of the adulterations found in French butters: Chalk, potato-starch, cooked potatoes, wheatflour, good butter mixed with butter of an inferior quality, carbonate or acetate of lead, saffron, juice of carrot, alkanette, flowers of marigold, aspergrallus berries, the fruit of the winter cherry, and the juice of celandine to give it a yellow colour. Adulterations of Butter.-The most common adulteration is the incorporation of large quantities of water with the butter. Professor Calvert, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee, remarks, "The quantity of water and salt that such an article as butter ought to contain is 24 per cent. of salt and 10 per cent. of water." Mr. Wanklyn, however, gives the amount in fresh Devonshire butter as 162 of water and 11 of salt; and in Normandy butter the quantity of water is 161, and that of salt 18, in 100 parts. Mr. Wanklyn examined a great many butters supplied to the London workhouses; the amount varied from 86 to 237 parts of water in a 100 parts of butter, the samples containing the lowest and highest quantity being de-analysis of butter, the best process is most scribed as "wretched." Hassall has found as much as 35 per cent. of water in butter, and Messrs. Angell and Hehner 42-35 per cent. A method said to be adopted by the trade to We now proceed to give the most recent methods of analysing butter. Analysis of Butter.-For a quantitative decidedly the one devised by Mr. Wanklyn, and described under MILK ANALYSIS. The processes are really identical, thus Water.-Carefully weigh 1 gramme of but is the water, and should be calculated and expressed in percentages. Fat.-The dried butter is now to be heated with ether (the ether should be made to boil by floating the dish in hot water). Several successive portions should be taken, the whole passed through a filter, the filter well washed with ether, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness and weighed. Caseine and Ash.-The residue from which the fat and the water have been extracted is now to be taken, carefully weighed, then burned down at a low red heat; the residue remaining is the ash, the loss the caseine. The amount of ash, practically speaking, is the salt; but if there is any doubt as to its composition, the chlorine may be estimated by a volumetric solution of nitrate of silver, and further examined. The following table shows the composition of a few genuine and other butters examined according to the same, or at least a similar process to the one described : Detection of Foreign Fats.-A really good process for the accurate detection of foreign fats has been long a desideratum. We believe that this a little time ago was impossible, but now the observations of Dr. Campbell Brown, and the processes of Angell and Hehner, will enable any admixture of foreign fats to be determined. Dr. C. Brown proposed placing a weighed portion of butter in a test-tube of an inch in diameter, placing the tube in hot water, and inserting in the tube a thermometer with a pear-shaped bulb; the butter is melted, then allowed to cool, and the exact point observed, both when the stem is obscured and when it is invisible (vide table). more practical plan than this. A bulb is blown the size and shape shown in fig. 16; a little mercury is put into it, until it weighs 34 grammes; and if made properly, it displaces 1 c.c. of water. 20 or 30 grammes of the butter to be tested is melted, and then poured into a test-tube and allowed to cool. The test-tube or tubes are immersed in a capacious beaker of water, the little bulb dropped on to the surface of the fat, a thermometer placed in the water, and Fig. 16. Angell and Hehner have proposed a rather heat applied. At the exact moment at which |