obtained from the seeds of a plant named Biza Orellana, and which forms the type of the small natural order Bixincæ. Annatto is chiefly prepared in Brazil and Cayenne. The colouring-matter is situated on the outside of the seeds, which are enclosed in pods, and is of two kinds-an orange-coloured, strongly tinctorial resin called bixin (C16H12O2), associated with a yellow one called orellin. Bixin is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, the fixed oils, and the alkalies; when in solution by an alkali, on addition of an acid, it falls as an orange precipitate. Upon this fact is based the method of purifying it. The commercial annatto is dissolved in an alkaline liquid, e.g., a solution of pearl-ash; dilute sulphuric acid is added to neutralisation, and the resulting precipitate collected. Genuine commercial annatto consists of 28 per cent. of resinous colouring-matter, and 20 per cent. of extractive matter. Characters, Microscopical and Chemical. When annatto is examined by the microscope, the outer red portion presents an almost homogeneous appearance, and the surface of the seed proper consists of narrow or elongated cells or fibres vertically disposed, while the inner white portion consists of cells filled with starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, and resembling in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea and bean. When the annatto is manufactured, and an unadulterated sample is examined, but little structure is met with. Portions of the outer cells may be seen; and in those specimens, which in the course of their preparation have not been subjected to the action of boiling water, a few starch granules may be noticed. Dyers, soapmakers, and painters use annatto. The two former frequently purchase it in the state in which it is imported, adding the alkali as a solvent when they use it. In these cases it does not pass through the socalled English manufacturer's hands at all. Since annatto, when manufactured, presents so few evidences of structure, by means of the microscope we can easily detect the presence of most foreign vegetable substances, such as turmeric powder, the starch of wheat, rye, barley, and sago flours. The salt and alkali present in the annatto generally greatly alter the appearance of the turmeric. Most of the colouring-matter of the cells is discharged, so that the starch corpuscles contained within them become visible. Loose starch granules of turmeric may also be frequently seen, and in consequence of the action of the alkali much enlarged. The microscopic characters of turmeric powder, wheat, rye, barley, and sago starch will be found fully described under their respective names. Annatto is used also to colour milk, butter, and cheese. Dr. John found the pulp surrounding the fresh seed to consist of 28 parts of colouring resinous matter, 26 5 of vegetable gluten, 20 of ligneous fibre, 20 of colouring extractive matter, 4 formed of matters analogous to vegetable extractive, and a trace of spicy and acid matters. The colouring-matter is soluble in alkalies and alcohol, less so in water. Annatto is adulterated to an extraordinary extent, and this adulteration is of the grossest possible description. In fact, there is scarcely an article we are acquainted with that is so largely and so generally tampered with. The substances are numerous, some organic, others inorganic. The organic substances used are turmeric, rye, barley, and wheat flours. The inorganic ones are sulphate of lime, carbonate of lime, salt, alkali, an oily substance (probably soap), red ferruginous earths, mostly Venetian red, red-lead, and copper. When large quantities of flour and lime are used, the colour of the annatto is so reduced that it becomes necessary to use salt, alkalies, and the red earths to restore it to its original standard. Salt heightens the intensity of vegetable reds, hence its use. Lead is probably introduced into the annatto through the Venetian red used. Copper is added to prevent the annatto becoming attacked by fungi. The extent to which annatto is adulterated will be shown by the following fact. On examination of thirty-four samples of annatto of various kinds, as imported and obtained from English manufacturers, and as purchased from dealers, two only were found genuine. As annatto is used to colour different articles of diet, when adulterated its use may often prove detrimental to health. Accum, Mitchell, Bernays, Normandy, and Hassall appear to have detected in cheese, adulterated with annatto, sufficient red-lead to cause injurious effects to ensue from eating it; but from recent investigations, it would seem extremely doubtful whether red-lead is now employed to the extent they state. Annatto, after being kept some time, becomes attacked by maggots. In order to estimate the commercial value, and detect adulteration in a sample, the quickest and best way is the following: Weigh accurately a gramme in a small platinum dish; dry in the water-bath for a couple of hours, then weigh: the loss is the water. Finely powder and digest it for some hours in alcohol; then boil, filter, and treat with successive portions of alcohol, until all the colouring-matter is dissolved; filter, evaporate the filtrate down, and weigh: the result is the resin. The insoluble portion will, in a good commercial specimen, consist of woody matter, extractive, gluten, &c. For the ash, weigh another gramme in a platinum dish; dry for a short time over the water-bath; then powder and burn until it ceases to loso weight. It is prudent to fuse a little on charcoal, with carbonate of soda, before the blow-pipe, before burning it in a platinum vessel, as there may be lead in the annatto. The ash should then be submitted to the various reagents in order to detect lime, iron, alumina, &c. &c. If the ash is not excessive, and the resin about 28 per cent., it is a fair specimen. A correct determination of ash and resin is all that is required to definitely pronounce on the purity or impurity of the sample. The following is an analysis of a fair commercial sample by the author. No. 1. The sample was in the form of a paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar but not dis agreeable: Thus, in the one the resin was 28 per cent., the ash 22; in the other the resin was only 11 per cent., the ash no less than 48. Antidote-In medicine, toxicology, &c., a substance administered to counteract or lessen the effects of poison. The principal poisons, with their antidotes, are noticed under their respective heads. Antidotes may be divided into direct and indirect antidotes: the former neutralising or destroying the injurious action of the poison on meeting it in the system; the latter counteracting the injurious physiological effects of the drug. The following list gives the most important antidotes to the chief poisons:Direct Antidotes. Poisons. Acids........ Alkalies and al Antidotes. Magnesia, chalk, and dilute solutions of alkaline carbonates. kaline earths Vinegar-and-water, and oil. soda. Liq. potassa. Belladonna........ Henbane Stramonium Strychnine........... Perhaps monobromated camphor. Antiseptic-An epithet applied to anything which impedes or arrests putrefaction, e.g., cold, heat, chlorine, iodine, sulphur, carbolic acid, tar, alum, salt, nitre, alcohol, vinegar, &c. See DISINFECTANTS. Antozone-See OZONE. Appeals--The power of appeal is amply provided for by the Sanitary Acts. Any person on whom an order of prohibition, or an order requiring the execution of structural works, is made, may appeal to Quarter Sessions, pending which decision there is no liability to penalty, nor shall the work or proceedings be gone on with (P. H., s. 99). Any person feeling himself aggrieved by any rate made under the provisions of the Public Health Act, or by any order, conviction, judgment, or determination of any matter done by any court of summary jurisdiction, in cases in which the sum or penalty adjudged exceeds twenty shillings, may appeal to Quarter Sessions. In all the above cases the following conditions must be observed: The appeal must be made to the next Quarter Sessions, holden not less than twentyone days after the decision of the authority or court from which the appeal is made. The appellant must give notice to the other party and to the court or authority from which he appeals, within fourteen days after the cause of appeal has arisen, stating his intention to appeal, and the grounds thereof. The appellant shall, immediately after such notice, enter into a recognisance before a justice of the peace, with two sufficient sureties, conditioned personally to try such appeal, to abide the judgment of the court thereon, and to pay such costs as may be awarded by the court, or give such other security by deposit of money or otherwise as the justice may allow. If the appellant is in custody, the justice may, if he think fit, release him on giving similar security. In appeals against rates, the court has the same power of amending or quashing a rate of assessment, and of awarding costs, as a court of Quarter Sessions has in appeals against poor-rates, and the costs may be recovered in the same manner: provided that, notwithstanding the quashing of any rate appealed against, all moneys charged by such rate shall, if the court of appeal think fit so to order, be levied as if no appeal had been made, and such moneys, when paid, shall be taken as payment on account of the next effective rate for the purposes in respect of which the quashed rate was made. In the case of other appeals the court of appeal may adjourn the appeal, and on the hearing thereof may confirm, reverse, or modify the decision of the court of summary jurisdiction, or remit the matter to the court of summary jurisdiction with the opinion of the court of appeal thereon, or make such other order in the matter as the court thinks just. The court of appeal may also make such order as to costs to be paid by either party as the court thinks just. Soluble Matter— Sugar Free acid (reduced to equiva- Albuminous substances Pectous substances The decision of the court of appeal shall be binding on all parties: provided that the court of appeal may, if such court thinks fit, in the case of an appeal against the decision of a court of summary jurisdiction under the provisions of P. H. relating to nuisances, state the facts specially for the determination Insoluble Matter_ of the Court of Queen's Bench, in which case it shall be lawful to remove the proceedings, by writ of certiorari or otherwise into the Court of Queen's Bench (P. H., s. 269). If any person feel himself aggrieved by the decision of a local authority in respect to the summary recovery of expenses or in the declaring of expenses as private improvement expenses, he may, on giving notice, memorialise the Local Government Board, and the order the Board makes is binding (P. H., 8. 268). An owner or ratepayer disputing the validity of a vote of owners and ratepayers, declaring that it is expedient a district should be made a local government district, may appeal within six weeks from the declaration of the decision of the meeting to the Local Government Board, who may make, after local inquiry, such order as is necessary (P. H., s. 274). Apples-Natural order Pomaceæ. Apples are of small nutritive value, containing not more than 13 per cent. of solid matter, and this is of no more value than so much rice; but they have an agreeable flavour, and are useful for their antiscorbutic properties. Seeds [Ash from insoluble matter Arbitration-The matters directed by the Public Health Act, 1875, to be settled by arbitration are 1. Disputes between persons and the local authority in regard to amount of compensation in case of damage done by the local authority by reason of the exercise of any of the powers of the Act. 2. Terms upon which water companies ought to furnish a proper and sufficient supply of water for all reasonable purposes for which it is required. 3. Whether the water which any company is able and willing to supply is proper and sufficient for the purposes for which it is required. 4. Whether the purposes for which it is required are reasonable. 5. Disputes between local authorities as to the supply of water, in the case of an authority supplying water to a neighbouring district. 6. Disputes as to the amount of compensation to be paid by an urban authority, to the owner or other person interested, in the case of houses or buildings which have been put backward or forward in order to regulate the line of buildings in the street. 7. Disputes as to whether matters or things proposed to be done, injure or interfere with canals, rivers, &c. See CANALS. 8. Differences of opinion with respect to the efficiency of substituted sewers, and with regard to the consequences resulting from interferences with water rights. made under the common seal on behalf of the local authority, and on behalf of any other party under his hand, or if such party be a corporation, under their common seal. There are certain provisions in case of the death of an arbitrator. The time for making an award must not exceed three months. When there is more than one arbitrator, they must appoint by writing under their 9. Terms on which sewers may be used by hands an umpire. If the umpire dies pending persons outside the district. 10. Disputes between the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the urban authority of those places respectively, as to the proportion and manner in which they shall contribute towards any expenses under the Act. 11. By the 34 & 35 Vict. c. 41, s. 27, differences relating to the supply of gas may be settled by arbitration. Amounts under £20 may be settled in a court of summary jurisdiction. The court may invoke the advice of a competent surveyor (not being the surveyor of the sanitary authority), and make what order it thinks fit as to costs. All questions referred to arbitration under the Public Health Act, when the amount in dispute is less than £20, may at the option of either party be determined before a court of summary jurisdiction, which court may, if it thinks fit, require the aid and report of a competent surveyor on works, &c., in dispute, and the court may determine the amount of costs incurred in that behalf, and by whom they are to be paid (P. H., s. 181). the arbitration, another must be appointed in his stead. If the arbitrators neglect or refuse to appoint an umpire within seven days when requested to do so, the Quarter Sessions may on application appoint one. Before any arbitrator or umpire can enter upon any reference, he must make and subscribe the following declaration before a justice of the peace : I, A. B., do solemnly and sincerely declare that I will faithfully and honestly, and to the best of my skill and ability, hear and determine the matters referred to me under the Public Health Act, 1875. This declaration is to be annexed to the award when made, and any arbitrator or umpire wilfully acting contrary to it is guilty of a misdemeanour. The arbitrators must be unbiassed, and have no direct personal interest in the matter, however remote. The decision of the arbitrator is binding (P. H., s. 179-181). Areas, Sanitary-See SANITARY DIS TRICTS. Areometer-An instrument to take the specific gravity of liquids. It is, however, seldom exactly accurate, and there are other methods which give better results. In this country, the word is principally applied to the areometers of Baumé, which are in general use on the Continent, and are fairly accurate. Arbitrators-The word "arbitrators," under the Public Health Act, 1875, includes a single arbitrator; and the words "arbitrators" and "arbitrator" include an umpire. The appointment of an arbitrator must be AREOMETER FOR LIQUIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER, Pèse-acide or Pèse-sirop. 1 CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND DEGREES OF BAUMÉ'S AREOMETER FOR HEAVY LIQUIDS. From the Batavian Pharmacopoeia. CORRESPONDING Degrees OF BAUMÉ'S AREOMETERS AND REAL SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. Areometer for Liquids lighter than Water or Pèse-esprit.* * These instruments are in France adjusted at 15° Cent., or 59° Fahr. ; those in England at 60° Fahr. Armenian Bole-See BOLE. slight tinge similar to that of old hollands. Army, Hygiène of - See HYGIÈNE, The inferior qualities are more heating and MILITARY. Arrack-The ordinary arrack is a spirit distilled from fermented rice, but the finer qualities are distilled from the fermented juice (toddy-palm wine) of the cocoanut-tree, palmyra-tree, and other palms. Batavian, Madras, and China arrack are the three varieties most esteemed. The pariah arrack is generally narcotic, very intoxicating, and unwholesome. It is often prepared from coarse jaggery, spoilt toddy, refuse rice, &c., and rendered more intoxicating by the addition of hemp leaves, poppy heads, juice of stramonium, and other substances. The Hindoos, Malays, &c., take arrack largely. Arrack, like other spirits, is colourless, or nearly so, but when kept long in wood it gradually acquires a apt to disagree with the stomach than the other commercial spirits. It is used in this country chiefly to make punch. See ALCOHOL and ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. Arrowroot-See STARCH. Arsenic, or Arsenicum, was known in various stages of combination to mankind before the Christian era. This element presents many analogies with phosphorus and with nitrogen, and several French writers consider it as belonging to the non-metallic elements, notwithstanding that it conducts electricity with facility, and possesses a high metallic lustre. It generally presents itself as an alloy with some other metal, especially with iron, or with cobalt, nickel, copper, or tin. Occasionally it is found in its native |