Arsenites-Arsenious acid combines with various alkaline, earthy, and metallic elements, forming arsenites, all of which are poisonous, and give rise to symptoms and effects similar to those described under ARSENIC.

The only metallic arsenites met with in commerce are those of copper, and these, under various names-such as Scheele's green, mineral green, emerald green, Brunswick, Schweinfurt, or Vienna green-are the basis of a great variety of pigments, and, as a consequence, find their way into cakes of water-colours, into wafers, candles, wall-papers, and even into confectionery and other articles of food. Bread has been impregnated with arsenic from the loaves having been placed on shelves freshly painted with green paint (Medical Times and Gazette, April 1854, p. 326); and there are many cases on record of this poison finding its way into eatables through curious and unsuspected channels.

The only other common arsenites are those of potash and soda. Fowler's solution, or liquor arsenicalis, is a solution of arsenite of potash coloured with tincture of lavender. Arsenite of potash, tar, and soap is a common wash for sheep; and fatal cases have occurred both amongst the animals to which it has been applied and the men applying it; and the various "fly-waters" are solution of arsenites of soda and potash sweetened with sugar. See ARSENIC. Arseniuretted Hydrogen-See HYDROGEN, ARSENIC, &c.

Artichoke - The Cynara Scolymus, a thistle-like perennial plant of the natural order Composita, a native of Southern Europe, but extensively cultivated in our gardens for its "bottom," or the sweet fleshy receptacle of its flowers, which is eaten as a pot-herb. It has much the same nutritive value as carrots, onions, cauliflower, cabbages, &c. This must not be confounded with the Jerusalem artichoke, which is altogether a different plant.

Artichoke, Jerusalem-Derived from the Helianthus tuberosus. A native of Mexico, and said to have been introduced into England in 1617. The term "Jerusalem" is supposed to be a corruption of the Italian word

Composition of the Jerusalem Artichoke. Nitrogenous matter Sugar Inuline Pectic acid Pectine Cellulose Fatty matter Mineral matter Water

3.1

14.7

19

0.9

0.4

1.5

0.2

1.3

76.0

100.0

This vegetable is but little eaten in England.

Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings -See HABITATIONS.

Ascaris lumbricoides-Round worm. This is the most common human parasite. It is from eighty-four to sixteen inches long, round and elastic, tapering towards each end. Of a greyish-red colour, and somewhat transparent. Children are very frequently attacked with them. The worms generally inhabit the small intestines and stomach, from whence they have been known to pass up into the gall-ducts, frontal sinuses, nostrils, mouth, &c. The writer has known an infant at the breast throw up, in the course of one day, more than twenty round worms of various sizes. They are, however, most frequently in pairs, often solitary.

It is probable that the ova gain admittance into the human body through drinking-water, and perhaps through uncooked vegetable food. Dr. Paterson of Leith observed that certain families drawing water from a well supplied from a dirty pool, which contained numerous vermiform animalculæ, were very subject to the Ascaris lumbricoides, while others in the same street drinking a different supply were unaffected.

Ascaris mystax-A round worm, infesting the cat. It has been found in the human subject. See WORMS, ROUND.

Ash-In commerce the word ash is applied which the alkalies are obtained, as kelp, barilla, to the ashes of the vegetable substances from &c. It is the popular name of the vegetable alkali, potash, in an impure state, as procured evaporation. The plants which yield the from the ashes of plants by lixiviation and greatest quantity of potash are wormwood and fumitory. The ashes of all species of woods and weeds are found to contain some alkali, hence it is that the residuary matter after the combustion of any vegetable matter is found to act as a stimulant to vegetable

Wheat Grain.

Straw.

Barley.

Oats.

Turnip Root,

Beetroot.

Carrot Root.

Potatoes.*

Lettuce

Leaves and

Wood.

5.73 12:06 35.02 24:30 2.88 5.91 1:48 5.92 6.00 11.91 5.03 11.06 1.25 7:45 7.33 3.28 2.62 0.44 0.65 0.98 0.61 0.23 0.07 0.51

0.52 6.74 1.10 16:13 10:36 3.14 6.34 1.74 1.52 4:03 3.22 2.23 73:57 32.73 38.48 2.69

0.49 0:47 3:02

0.50 2.82

...

1.75

2.75

0.28

4.71 3.85

3.09

7.27

0.20

...

29.92 33.74

5.82

9:35 48.21

5:51 31 69 26.46

10:47 6.18 15.23 15.15

9.31 4.85 1.65 8:37 10:38 9.38 4.77 14:47 6:34 43.52

...

2.17

...

:ཚོ:སྤྱི

growth. A careful determination of the ash of different substances is of great use to the analyst in detecting adulterations; for example, almost every plant has a very constant amount of ash, and not alone the quantity is constant, but the different proportions of the various components are also within certain limits fairly constant. Many plants have the power of selecting from the soil or medium in which they are placed rare elements; for example, the ash of tobacco contains lithium; tea, manganese; and seaweed, iodine: indeed, it is even possible that by careful chemical and spectroscopic observations of the ash new elements may be discovered.

The percentage of ash of the different foods will be found in their respective articles. We, however, give here a short list of the average percentage of ash of a few important sub

stances:

The chemical composition of the ashes of a few common plants may be gathered from the table on preceding page.

Ashes are used in agriculture in certain instances, according to the nature and proportions of earthy matters and different salts which they contain. According to M. Soulange Bodin, they hold the middle place between stable -dung and pasture - manure. They act mechanically in dividing too compact soils hygroscopically by absorbing moisture, and they appear to have a similar action to lime in accelerating the decomposition of the mould; they also probably act as a stimulant to the earth. In low-lying lands they are most suitable on very damp argillaceous soils.

In Picardy, turf-ashes are used; in England, the Low Countries, and the north of France, coal-ashes. Coal-ashes, mixed with excrement, besides disinfecting the latter, make an excellent manure.

For the powers of sanitary authorities with regard to the due removal of ashes, see REFUSE, DISPOSAL OF.

Ashpits-See REFUSE, DISPOSAL OF. Asparagin (CH,N2OзH2O)—This crystalline body is extracted from the young shoots of asparagus and of the climbing vetch, from the roots of the marsh-mallow, and from several other plants. It may generally be procured in crystals by simply evaporating the expressed juice of one of these plants.

The brown crystals thus obtained may be purified by treatment with charcoal and recrystallisation. Asparagin is chiefly remarkable for the facility with which it is decomposed into aspartic acid and ammonia. Piria found that if the expressed juice of the vetch was allowed to putrefy, the asparagin contained was gradually converted into ammonium succinate by the assimilation of 2 atoms of hydrogen. See ASPARAGUS.

Asparagus (natural order Liliaceæ, subclass Asparageœ)—Asparagus owes its remarkable qualities to the presence of a peculiar principle called asparagin, which is said to be more abundant in Asparagus acutifolius than in the species commonly cultivated. When young and well boiled it is wholesome and digestible, but far less nutritious than the potato; in fact, it does not contain more than from 9 to 17 per cent. of solid matter, and of this only about 1-2 is nitrogenous. It gives the urine a peculiar odour.

Asparagus, and indeed all succulent vegetables, are endowed with antiscorbutic powers, but in a less degree than the potato.

Assamar-A substance described by Reichenbach as being contained in the crust of bread, and possessing the faculty of retarding tissue metamorphosis. See BREAD.

Atmometer (atmos, vapour, and metron, measure) - An instrument to measure the quantity of water evaporated in a given time under ordinary atmospheric conditions. It is of very simple construction, and possesses some practical value. It consists of a long glass tube graduated into inches, having attached to the bottom a hollow ball of porous earthenware, similar to that used in waterbottles. In using it, water is poured in at the top till it rises to the zero-point of the scale. The outside of the porous ball being always covered with dew, the more rapid the evaporation the more quickly will the water fall in the tube.

Atropia (C17H23NO3)—A crystalline alkaloid, discovered by Brander in Atropa Belladonna, or deadly nightshade.

It

When pure it is obtained in colourless transparent silky prisms, if crystallised from hot concentrated solutions, or needles, from dilute alcoholic solutions. The alkaloid has an acrid, bitter, somewhat metallic taste. is freely soluble in amylic alcohol, benzole, and chloroform. It dissolves in 200 parts of cold and about 50 of boiling water, in 14 parts of cold alcohol, in 25 parts of cold and 6 parts of boiling ether.

It is extremely poisonous, of a grain has even caused serious symptoms in the human subject. When the symptoms of poisoning

are fully developed, they mainly consist of dilatation of the pupil, insensibility, or delirium and convulsions, terminated by coma. From the contents of the stomach the poison may be separated by the method of Stas, and developed by its action on the pupil, and by the tests described under art. ALKALOIDS.

In solution, atropia yields a precipitate to chloroiodide of potassium, chloride of gold, carbazotic acid, chloride of platinum, and tannic acid. It is not affected by either chromate or sulphocyanide of potash.

Audit-The Public Health Act, 1875 (s. 245-250), very fully provides for the audit of accounts.

The accounts of every local authority are to be made up in the form and to the day in every year appointed by the Local Government Board. (P. H., 245.)

In the case of an urban sanitary authority, when it is a town council, the accounts are to be audited and examined by the borough auditors, under the same regulations as those under which the municipal accounts are audited.

An urban authority not being a town council, has to get its accounts audited by the poorlaw auditor of the district; but if he should be a member of the board, the accounts are to be audited by such auditor of any adjoining union as may from time to time be appointed by the Local Government Board. (P. H., 247.) Not less than two guineas a day and travelling expenses are to be paid as fees to the auditor for each audit.

The auditor fixes the day or days on which he will conduct his audit, and the authority is to give at least fourteen days' public notice of the time and place of the audit in one or more of the local newspapers, and also notice when and where the accounts will be open for the inspection of the ratepayers.

Seven clear days before the audit, a copy of the accounts duly made up and balanced, "together with all rate-books, account-books, deeds, contracts, accounts, vouchers, and receipts," are to be deposited in the office of the authority, and remain open for inspection, during office hours, to all persons interested, who are at liberty to take copies or extracts from them without fee or reward. Any officer obstructing the inspection or tampering with the accounts is liable to a penalty of £2. (Ibid., 247.)

The duties of the auditor are, to require the production of every document relating to the audit, and he may also require the attendance of persons; failure in either case involves penalties. He is to examine the accounts

minutely, and to disallow any which he considers illegal. Of those unlawful items which have actually been paid, he is to surcharge the amount upon the person who made or authorised the same. This sum the person will have to pay within fourteen days; but if he think himself aggrieved, he may compel the auditor to state in writing his reasons for making the surcharge, and may apply for redress to the Local Government Board, or he may apply to the Court of Queen's Bench for a writ of certiorari to remove the disallowance into the said court, "as if it were a disallowance by a poor-law auditor." (Ibid.)

The auditor is to enforce by legal proceedings his surcharges, as in the case of poor-law accounts, the sanitary authority reimbursing expenses not recovered. (Ibid.)

Ratepayers or owners of property may be present at the audit, and may make objections to the accounts before the auditor, and they have the same right of appeal against allowances as they have against disallowances.

Fourteen days after the completion of the audit, the auditor is to deliver his report on the accounts audited to the clerk; this is to be deposited at the sanitary authority's office, and an abstract published in the local newspapers.

Rural sanitary authorities are to prepare by

their clerk their accounts at the close of each

half-year (General Order of Accounts, Art. 30); these accounts, as well as the accounts of overseers collecting or paying any money for the purposes of the Public Health Act, 1875, are to be audited by the poor-law auditors; the powers and obligations of the auditor and the right of appeal are exactly similar to those prevailing in the case of poor-law audits. (P. H., 248.)

Accounts of local authorities not audited at the time of passing of the Public Health Act, 1875, are to be deemed accounts under the said Public Health Act for the purpose of audit. (P. H., 324.)

Autopsy-This word really signifies selfexamination, but is now in general use as meaning a post mortem investigation. It is performed in England, to ascertain the cause of death in medico-legal investigations, or in the interests of science and pathology. It is also a preliminary to embalmment in this and other countries, and is sometimes used simply as a means of preserving the child when a woman dies in full pregnancy. In France no post mortem can be undertaken under twenty-four hours after death, for fear that the body operated upon may yet be alive.

In England, a post mortem cannot be instituted (without the consent of the friends)