MINERAL PRODUCTIONS.

The principal mineral treasures of the county are its coal fields. To these must be added lime, iron, whinstone, sandstone, and clay, which are more or less abundant.

By a charter dated in March, 1291, we find that William de Oberville "grants liberty to the convent of Dunfermline to open a coal-pit in his lands of Pityncrieff."* The coal-field of Fife is estimated at somewhat more than 200 square miles. There are 62 pits open, employing 2560 men and boys. The parrot or cannel-coal burns with a bright flame, and yields 20 per cent. of bitumen. It is employed in the manufacture of gas, and brings a much higher price than any other species of coal. It is found most at the coal works of Torry, Dysart, Fall-field, Clatto, Burnturk, Teasess, and Kippledrae.† The thickest bed of parrot coal is at Kippledrae, averaging 5 feet in thickness; and allowed to be the thickest deposit of it in Great Britain. Another variety is the common or caking coal, yielding about 40 per cent. of bitumen, according to Ure, and producing a considerable quantity of smoke in burning. This, called also the black or domestic coal, is found in seams varying from 1 to 20 feet in thickness. "Beginning at the west of Fife, and proceeding eastwards, the following coal-works are at present in operation, viz:-at Torry, Blair, Elgin, Wellwood, Protis, Hallbeath, Crossgates, Fordel, Dunibristle, Dundonald, Keltie, Beath, Rashes, Lochgelly, Kippledrae, Cluny Dunnikier, Dysart, Orr-Bridge, Balbirnie, Rothesfield, Wemyss, Drummochy, Lundin Mill, Grange, Rires, Balcarres, St. Monance, Pittenweem, Kellie, Gilmerton, Largoward, Bungs, Fallfield, Lathocker, Cairlhurlie, Teasess, Ceres, Drumcarro, Kilmux, Carriston, Clatto, and Burnturk."‡ Excellent ironstone, suited for the manufacture of every useful article, as also a quantity of workable clay-ironstone, containing about 36 per cent. of iron. §

A large quantity of beautiful sandstone for building; as at Cullello, in the parish of Aberdour, which is the finest in the county, and exported to Edinburgh, where some of the finest edifices have been built with it. The granite or sandstone rocks are the result of gradual deposition through many ages. Limestone rocks are also the result of stratified

* Dawson. + Ure's Chim. Dict.

Fullerton.

§ Fullerton.

deposits; they constitute the hard carbonate of lime, while chalk is the soft carbonate of lime. Ehrenberg states that all white chalk rocks are the produce of microscopic coral animalcules, possessing calcareous shells of 1-24th to 1-288th of a line in magnitude, and of which much more than one million are preserved in each cubic inch, that is, much more than ten millions in one pound of chalk.

All the varieties of Trap rock, commonly called whinstone, are very abundant in many places, as between N. Queensferry and Inverkeithing. Largo-Law is almost wholly composed of it. That at Queensferry, Pettycur, Orchil (near Auchtertool,) Kincraig Hill, and Earlsferry, are considerably harder than any of the whinstone family in the county. Trap rocks are all of igneous or ancient volcanic origin. They have not only been forced up from below, but have been in a state of fusion; and hence the reason why no organic forms are to be found. They are of later origin than the stratified deposits.

Much good fire-clay for manufacturing gas retorts, fire-brick, tiles, and pottery.

Several of the metals, as silver, lead, copper, nickel ochre, and arsenic pyrites, will be found taken notice of, while describing the parishes; as also under CLACKMANNANSHIRE. It is said that Sir John Erskine of Alva drew £45,000 from silver obtained at one part of the Ochil hills: but the track was lost, and ended in finding only lead. While referring to metals, I may make the following remark on Scotch gold. Sir Bevis Bulmer, Master of the Mint to Queen Elizabeth, employed 300 men for several summers, at the mines of Crawford, in Lanarkshire, and collected £100,000 sterling worth. The same gold is well known to have been used at the Scottish. Mint. Nevertheless, when labour rose to fourpence a day, the gold would no longer pay for working it. Under ST ANDREWS, we shall find that on one occasion covered dishes filled with coins of Scotch gold were presented to the guests by way of dessertcertainly very sweet fruit. By a charter of David I., to the monks of Dunfermline, we find that he grants to them the tenth of all the gold found in Fife; and so he might, with interest besides.

B

AGRICULTURE.

EARLY STATE.

In former ages, owing to the frequent foreign and English invasions, with internal feuds, agriculture was often in a very deplorable condition in Fife, as in other parts of Scotland. We find, on the authority of Froissart, Bower, and others, that agriculture was in 1097 but in a rude state in Fife, owing to its extensive forests, lakes, and marshes. Besides which, the tillers of land were bondmen, who were sold with or without the lands, in the reigns of David I., William the Lion, in 1178, and David II., in 1340. Indeed it is not a hundred years since the colliers were freed from slavery in Scotland. The farmers were little better; having no capital, they were rendered entirely dependent on the proprietor of the soil, receiving a portion of the produce as a reward for their labour. To these causes must be added frequent famines, and dreadful plagues that ravaged Scotland in their scourging career; and on Fife they fell with most deadly force. We have already, under the Article BOUNDARY, taken notice of the frequent inundations, producing the most fearful effects. A single illustration will suffice, in our limited space. Thus, in 1335, Bower refers to a dreadful famine, occasioned by the continued ravages of war, and the cessation of all agricultural labour, that desolated Scotland, reduced the country to a desert, and added to the miseries of the people. Such as were able left the country, while poor people were driven into the woods, where, feeding on raw nuts, acorns, and roots, they were seized with malignant diseases, which carried them off in thousands. In 1341, however, Bower says, "the kingdom began to breathe anew, industry revived, the husbandman was again seen at the plough, and the priest at the altar." The picture just drawn was more or less frequently repeated for ages; hence the spirit of industry languished, and agriculture was nearly crushed; but, like the ants, what was destroyed the one season was rebuilt or ploughed up the next.

The houses of the poor were huts of slight erection, of turf, wood, or loose stones, "often laid waste by war." Though rudely lodged, they were, in times of peace, well fed, being allowed to raise cattle, swine, and poultry in abundance. Their bread was a mixture of wheat and oats, or pease or barley and oats; and ale appears to have been largely consumed, as brew-houses were in every village. Previous to 1785,

farmers, with few exceptions, lived in low smoky houses, badly lighted, dirty in the extreme, with no other partition except that made by wooden bedsteads, forming what is called a "but and a ben." They, moreover, had a cow or a pig as a part of their family. While these have now been transferred to their servants, their modern houses are more fit for the proprietor. The spinning-wheel and riding horse have given way to the pianoforte and the gig: a harp and carriage will certainly be the next improvement; and why not, if it be not at the public expense?

Formerly the clergy were the great improvers of agriculture: leases of land first proceeded from them, though they were not confirmed by Parliament till 1429, when James I. enacted a law to that effect. Wheat and oats were early cultivated in Fife; by a charter of David I. he granted the tenth of them from his manors of Kinghorn, Kellie, and Crail, to the monastery of Dunfermline. Beans were first introduced in the reign of James I. The breeding of horses was carried to a considerable extent in Fife. The forests teemed with herds of a small but

hardy breed of wild horses. Oxen were used for the plough, and horses for conveying the agricultural produce to distant parts. Great attention was bestowed on the rearing of sheep and cattle. Goats were numerous among the mountains, and supplied thousands with meat in times of scarcity. The dairy, and the breeding of poultry, were objects of great

attention.

The following remarks on the value of land, and provisions, are from Mr Leighton. The price of land was various and fluctuating, running from £20 to £40 of our present money per acre; and that of rents paid was equally fluctuating. We find the price of provisions from 1260 to 1324 still more variable, being sometimes double within two years. A chalder, or 14 bolls, of oatmeal was generally sold for one pound sterling. A cow was 4s 6d, a sheep 10d, swine 1s 6d each, and hens were 1d each. By bishop Fleetwood, (in his Chronicon Pretiosum,) I find an acre of land, in 1066, cost 1s.; or 120 acres, 100s.; a palfrey, 1s.; a sheep, 1s.; an ox was computed at 6d.; a cow at 4s.; and a man sold at £3 sterling. In 1544, good lands were let at 1s. per acre.

PRESENT STATE.

To the Union in 1707, must be attributed the origin of its present improved state. Suffice it to say, that the land-rental of the county has increased since the Restoration, in 1660, twenty-five fold.

The soil of Fife, from its irregularity of surface, deepness or rockiness, morass, shelter, or exposure, is necessarily various, and includes within its range the luxuriance of Egypt with the barrenness of Arabia. Generally the soil is of an excellent quality, being either "deep rich loam, good clay, and gravel mixed with loamy earth;" or "the soil lies on rotten rock;" while some parts are cold, poor clay, and very wet. Most of the county is arable, enclosed, and sheltered with ornamental woods, or thick strips of trees. To these we may add, that the range of the barometer is often both great and rapid; the average being 30 inches. The winds are to a high degree variable, both in force and direction. Unless in the spring and early summer months, when easterly winds prevail, they are usually westerly. Fogs, and drizzly rains, are "few and far between ;" and though it is frequently cloudy, wet, and cold, it is not more so than other counties in Scotland. Indeed, in some respects, it is more pleasant than the western districts, and more fertile than the northern.

Every modern improvement in agriculture has been adopted in Fife; and the high state of cultivation over the whole county is a proof of the skill, industry, and enterprise of the farmers. The last 60 years have produced a great change in agriculture. Capital, intelligence, and energy have been brought to bear on it, and have effected the most remarkable improvements. To these must be added steam-navigation and railways, which have greatly facilitated the communication with the London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and other markets. The most important improvements made use of are the introduction of machinery, and the extensive use of drainage, with the use of farm-yard dung, bone-dust, guano, the feeding of swine, and the increased cultivation of turnips. "A great number of pigs have of late been reared; killed and shipped in a fresh state for the London market." Turnips have greatly increased the feeding of sheep. The Fife breed of cattle has for ages been celebrated both for breeding and for dairy; though, of late, injudicious crossing has injured instead of improving them.

Oats are more cultivated in Fife than any other grain, being better suited to the soil and climate. 34,000 acres of land are annually sown with this kind of grain. Messrs Fullerton tell us that "the cultivation of wheat has kept pace with the improvements in agriculture. More barley is cultivated than formerly, owing to the vast number of distilleries, both here and in Clackmannanshire, which ensure a ready market to the grower." One-twelfth of the arable land is devoted to potato