also from the twelve Nidanas (in Tibetan Tenbrel chugnyi), which are based upon the four truths.

The Nidanas, the theory of the causal connection, or concatenation of the causes of existence, are formulated as follows: "On account of ignorance, merit and demerit are produced; on account of merit and demerit, consciousness; on account of consciousness, body and mind; on account of body and mind, the six organs of sense; on account of the six organs of sense, touch (or contact); on account of contact, desire; on account of desire, sensation (of pleasure or pain); on account of sensation, cleaving (or clinging) to existing objects; on account of clinging to existing objects, renewed existence (or reproduction after death); on account of reproduction of existence, birth; on account of birth, decay, death, sorrow, pain, disgust, and passionate discontent. Thus is produced the complete body of sorrow. From the complete separation from and cessation of ignorance, is the cessation of merit and demerit; from the cessation of merit and demerit is the cessation of consciousness; from the cessation of consciousness is the cessation of (the existence of) body and mind; from the cessation of (the existence of) body and mind is the cessation of (the production of) the six organs; from the cessation of (the production of) the six organs is the cessation of touch; from the cessation of touch is the cessation of desire; from the cessation of desire is the cessation of (pleasurable or painful) sensation; from the cessation of sensation is the cessation of the cleaving to existing objects; from the cessation of cleaving to existing objects is the cessation

of a reproduction of existence; from the cessation of a reproduction of existence is the cessation of birth; from the cessation of birth is the cessation of decay. Thus the whole body of sorrow ceases to exist."1

II. In the books of discipline attached to this system we also meet with a vast accumulation of precepts and rules intended to release its followers from the ties binding them to the present and future states of existence, and to strengthen them in moral virtues. One curious feature predominating throughout is worthy of mention. The whole of the precepts (which are comprised in 250 articles) display a negative character; thus, charity is inculcated, not by the command "to give,” but by the prohibition "to take," save when the gift be offered as alms.

Already this school had put forth the doctrine, that perfection in abstract meditation is indispensable for final salvation; this perfection guarantees an energy not to be derived from the mere practice of simple virtues. Nevertheless the idea is not carried so far as to assign to mental speculation a higher value, than to virtues. Assiduity in undisturbed reflection was, however, found under any circumstances to be a most difficult task; certain preparatory exercises are, therefore, recommended, in order to finally lead the mind to abstraction from outward (worldly) objects; but here already we meet in Buddhism with decided extravagances in moral considerations. The counting of inhalations and exhalations is named as an

1 Hardy's "Manual of Buddhism," p. 391. Burnouf, "Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi," Appendix No. VI., "Introduction," p. 623. Foe koue ki, p. 291.

GRADATIONS OF PERFECTION.

25

excellent means for obtaining tranquillity of mind. Detestation of the world is said to result from meditating upon the attributes of the body: if, therefore, one begins with regarding his body as an abscess, he will be convinced that the body contains nothing but misery and decay, and he will then easily cast off all affection for it, and will even end by considering food also as a mass of putridity, with which he will become disgusted.'

III. As regards the degree of perfection which man has attained in virtues and science, this system acknowledges several gradations, which are based upon the following philosophical considerations. The comprehension of the doctrines as taught by Sakyamuni is different with different men. There are several degrees of comprehension. Those who have succeeded in arriving at the highest degree are superior to those of a lower one. There are four paths to comprehension, and in order to arrive at final emancipation from re-birth, at Nirvana, it is indispensable to have entered one of them at least. Emancipation takes place either instantaneously, on account of the merit accumulated in previous existences, or by assiduous attention to to the various exercises prescribed. To each of the four paths to comprehension are assigned particular faculties arising from its pursuit. Those who have not yet entered any of the paths, are designated in the sacred books by the name of "unwise

1 Such moral fanaticism does not seem, however, to have had its exclusive origin in Buddhism, for the Buddhists themselves state, that these practices were known also to the Tirthikas, the Brahmanical ascetics, or the "unbelievers." See Hardy, "Eastern Monachism," p. 250. Burnouf, "Introduction," p. 280.

men," or those who live in the meshes of the cleaving to existence, of evil desire, ignorance, and impurity. These unwise men have not availed themselves of the means revealed by the Buddha to obtain freedom from metempsychosis; "their minds are still obscure, slow, incapable of clear comprehension; such beings are not in the path securing final liberation, which is only accorded to one of the paths of wisdom."

The gradually increasing importance of the four paths is defined by the Buddhists as follows:-1

First path. This is attained by the Srōtapatti, or "the man who have entered the stream" leading to Nirväna, and have thus advanced one step towards salvation. Nirvana is reached by rejecting the error which teaches "I am," or "this is mine," by not doubting the real existence of the Buddhas, and by perceiving that the practises and exercises ordained by them must be carefully attended to. From the time of entering this path up to the attainment of Nirvana itself, there remain only seven more births, but none can take place in any of the four hells; such a saint constantly wanders about, and according to Chinese notions, his migrations last 80,000 kalpas, or periods of a mundane revolution.

Second path. The graduate is here called Sakridāgāmin, "he who will receive birth once more." Such a graduate's mind is enlightened upon the subject of the three doctrines understood by the Srōtapatti, and is,

1 See Foe koue ki, Engl. transl., p. 94. Burnouf, "Introduction," pp. 288-98. Hardy, "Eastern Monachism," Chapter XXII. Each path is subdivided into two classes, and thus we get the other system of eight paths, to which I have already alluded. See p. 17.

GRADATIONS OF PERFECTION.

27

moreover, freed from the desire of cleaving to sensuous objects, and of wishing evil to others. He may either enter this path in the world of men and afterwards be born in a world appropriated to gods, or he may enter it in a world of gods, and afterwards be born in the world of men. He has still to wait 60,000 kalpas, be

fore he arrives at Nirvana.

Third path. Here the graduate, Anāgāmin, “he who will not be born again," is free from the five errors already cast off by the Sakridāgāmin, and also from evil desire, ignorance, doubt of the precepts of the sceptics, and hatred. He may enter, by the apparitional birth, a world of gods, and from that world attain Nirvāna, for which, however, he has still to wait 40,000 kalpas.

Fourth path. This, the highest path to perfection, is attained by the Arhats, Arhants, or Archats, a title meaning that they deserve to become members of the assembly of the faithfuls (samgha). In the earliest period of Buddhism the name Arhat was given to every one who had arrived at the comprehension of the four truths. But such a steadiness of the mind, the Hinayana followers say, can only be attained by those who have renounced the world, viz. by the priests; and these alone consequently enjoy the advantages of entering the fourth path, which consists in nothing less than the emancipation from re-birth, and the possession of five supernatural faculties, or the Abhijnās. To allege of any one that he has "seen Nirvana," is the same as saying, that he has become Arhat. The restriction of Nirvana to the clergy cannot be imputed to Sakyamuni, who,