Sadag gyalpo. The lord of the ground, and the mischievous spirits obeying him, are supposed to do mischief, from innate malice, to the dead in his future existence, as well as to his surviving relatives in their present one. The lord of the ground can be pacified by the purchase of the burial ground, while the other malignant spirits are banished by charms and rites, in which reverence is paid to the three gems, viz. to Buddha, Dharma, and Sanga. These rites are said to have been taught to man by Manjusri, the god of wisdom. The relatives of the deceased inform the astrologers, who are considered to have intercourse with Sadag, of the amount they propose to pay to Sadag, either in the form of cattle or money, and request them to persuade him to be satisfied therewith. Invariably the answer is returned, that Sadag, who is represented as insatiable, wants more for his pacification than the amount offered. When, finally, the necessary sum has been settled, the grave is marked out, and the astrologers proceed to expel Sadag and all the other malignant spirits in the following terms:

"Lord of the ground, and you Mahōragas, hear my command and order, which I issue with the ceremonies prescribed by the sacred law of the god Manjusrī and of the three gems. I drive the arrow not into the eyes, not into the feet, not into the bowels of the evil spirits, Lord of the ground, but into the earth, in order to

See p. 184, Note 2.

2 Mahōragas, in Tibetan Tophye chenpo, are terrestrial dragons superior to man. See Foe koue ki, Engl. transl., p. 133.

render propitious the inferior mischievous spirits. Genii, if you do not obey my order, I will break your heads with my dorje. Hear my order: hurt neither the deceased (his name is here repeated) nor his surviving relatives. Do them no damage, neither injure them, nor teaze them, nor bring misfortune upon them."1

The Lama then drives the arrow into the ground, where it remains until the dead person is buried.

From an oral communication from a Lama.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE SYSTEMS OF RECKONING TIME.

1. CALENDARS AND ASTROLOGICAL TABLES.-2. THE VARIOUS MODES OF CHRONOLOGY. The cycle of 12 years. Counting back from the current year. The cycle of 60 years. The cycle of 252 years.-3. THE YEAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.

1. Calendars and astrological tables.

The Tibetans received their astronomical science from their neighbours in India and China; the Chinese also becoming their teachers in the art of divination. Their acquaintance with the astronomical and calendrical systems of these nations coincides with the propagation of the Buddhist religion by the Chinese and Indian priests, to whom they are also indebted for the respective systems of defining the year. Both systems are based upon a

In the "Description du Tubet," translated from the Chinese by Klaproth in Nouv. Journ. As., Vol. IV., p. 138, the Chinese consort of King Srongtsan Gampo and her suite are stated to have brought the Chinese system into Tíbet in the seventh century A.D.

unit of sixty years, differing, however, in the modes of denominating the years. The Indian denomination is called in Tibetan Kartsis, "white mathematics;" the Chinese method, on the other hand, goes by the name of Naktsis, "black mathematics," a term also extended to the "black art," or the science of divination and of astrological calculations."

The Tibetan designations for almanacs are Leutho, Lotho, or Ritha; they are sketched by the Lamas.

It is a very general custom to append to the almanacs various tables for astrological purposes. These additional tables differ widely in contents as well as in size; they are rarely wanting for the following purposes:

3

Gabtsis, "the concealed calculations," are tables framed upon the common calendrical system, the occasions for which they are consulted being most various.

Grubtsis, "the perfect astronomy," for deciding the character and influence of the planets.

5

Tserab las-tsis is the name of the calculations for the duration of life, and of the fate of man.

6

Bagtsis are the tables consulted in cases of marriage. Shintsis' are those used to find an answer to inquiries respecting the form in which the dead shall be re-born.

1 Nag, "black;" rtsis, "mathematics;" dkar, "white." These names have decidedly originated from the Tibetan names for India and China, which are called respectively "white plain," Gya-gar, and "black plain," Gya-nag. Kartsis, however, is also used for "Astronomy," or "Astrology," but it is then spelt skar-rtsis, from skar, a star.

2 The name Dalow for calendar, occurring in Turner, "Embassy," p. 331, is probably a dialectical modification of this word.

3 Gab, "a shelter; concealed, dubious;" rtsis, "mathematics."

Grub, "perfect."

Ts'he, "time, lifetime;" rabs, "genealogy;" las, "work, fate."
Bag, "a bride." 7 gShin, "a corpse."

THE VARIOUS MODES OF CHRONOLOGY.

275

Naktsis, which also designates the art of divination in general, is predominantly applied to tables by means of which the lucky and unlucky times affecting a particular individual, with the reasons of their being so, can be determined. Several tables of this kind will be described in a subsequent chapter.

Tables relating to particular classes, such as Rājas, Lamas, and the like, are less frequently met with.

2. The various modes of chronology.

The various systems of reckoning time have already been the object of the most learned and successful researches by Csoma and Ideler. I give an abstract of their results on account of the connexion of the calendrical systems with the interpretation of the astrological calculations; this affords me, at the same time, the opportunity of combining with it the informations which Hermann obtained from natives during his stay in Sikkim.

1. When any thing is to be defined referring to a period not too distant from the present time, it is not the practice to use a standard unit of sixty years, but a cycle of twelve years is employed instead, each year bearing the name of an animal,' which names are invariably repeated in the following order:

1 Respecting the origin and introduction of this cycle which is generally called "the Tatar," see Ideler, "Ueber die Zeitrechnung der Chinesen," pp. 75, 78. He believes it to have first arisen in Western Asia. Klaproth finds it mentioned for the first time in Chinese books in the year 622 A.D. Nouv. Journ. As., Vol. XV., p. 145.