Sambhava and subsequent Indian priests, however, explained the law in the sense of the Madhyamika school, which in India at this period had just gained influence over the Yogacharya system; they insisted upon assiduity in undisturbed meditation. But King Thisrong de tsan, who did not wish two opposing doctrines to be taught, ordered a disputation to take place between the Chinese Mahāyāna (a name evidently symbolical of the system he defended) and the Hindu Kamalasila. Mahāyāna was defeated and obliged to leave Tíbet, and since this period Indian priests only were called and Madhyamika doctrines taught.' King Thisrong built the large monastery and temple of Bima at Samyé, and ordered the translation of the sacred books into the Tibetan language to be carried on energetically.

He

A later ruler of the name of Langdar, or Langdharma, again tried to abolish Buddhist doctrines. commanded all temples and monasteries to be demolished, the images to be destroyed, and the sacred books to be burnt; but so intense was the indignation excited by these acts of sacrilege, that he was murdered, in the year 900 A.D. Langdar's son and successor is also said to have died in his 64th year "without religion." Bilamgur Tsan, Langhdarma's grandson, proved, on the other hand,

2

See p. 54.-Wassiljew, "Der Buddhismus," p. 350; comp. pp. 324, 355. Rémusat, Nouv. Journ. As. 1832, p. 44. The Bhodimor designates the two doctrines &Tonmin and Tsemin; Georgi, "Alphab. Tibet," p. 222, by Dote (from the m Do or Sūtras) and Gyute (from the Gyut or Tantras); these names imply that Tantrika principles had gradually crept into the Madhyamika systems.

2 Ssanang Ssetsen post-dates this event to the year 925. Langdharma was born, according to Csoma, in 861; Ssanang Ssetsen says 863 and Klaproth 901.

THE LAMA TSONKHAPA.

69

favourably inclined to Buddhism; he re-built eight temples, and died after a glorious reign of eighteen years. With this period we have to connect "the second propagation of Buddhism;" it received, especially from the year 971, a powerful impetus from the joint endeavours of the returned Tibetan priests (who had fled the country under the preceding kings), and of the learned Indian priest Pandita Atisha and his pupil Bromston. Shortly before Atisha came to Tíbet, 1041 A.D., the Kāla Chakra doctrine, or Tantrika mysticism, was introduced into Tíbet, and in the twelth and thirteenth centuries, many Indian refugees settled in the country, who greatly assisted the Tibetans in the translation of Sanskrit books.

Three hundred years from the time of Atisha's death bring us to the period of Tsonkhapa, the extraordinary reformer, who was born in the year 1355 A.D., in the district of Amdo, where is now the famous monastery of Kunbum. Tsonkhapa had imposed upon himself the difficult task of uniting and reconciling the dialectical and mystical schools which Tibetan Buddhism had brought forth, and also of eradicating the abuses gradually introduced by the priests, who had returned to the ordinary tricks and pretended miracles of charlatanism, in order to prove to the crowd their extraordinary mission. Tsonkhapa strictly prohibited such proceedings, and enforced a rigid observance of the laws binding upon the priests; he also distinguished himself by publishing most comprehensive works, in which the principles of the faith of the Buddha are explained from his particular point of view.-Traditions

report him to have had some intercourse with a stranger from the west who was remarkable for a long nose. Huc believes this stranger to have been a European missionary, and connects the resemblance of the religious service in Tíbet to the Roman Catholic ritual with the informations which Tsonkhapa might have received from this Roman Catholic priest. We are not yet able to decide the question as to how far Buddhism may have borrowed from Christianity; but the rites of the Buddhists enumerated by the French missionary can for the most part either be traced back to institutions peculiar to Buddhism, or they have sprung up in periods posterior to Tsonkhapa.1

Though all the innovations introduced by Tsonkhapa, were never universally acknowledged, yet he obtained numerous followers, whose numbers rapidly increased during the next two centuries, until they predominated in Tíbet and High Asia. The rigour of his ordinances against the priests has been, however, considerably relaxed, and how widely the practice now differs from theory, we may infer from the fact, that the entrance into the clerical profession is an object of general ambition, and that a considerable part of the priestly revenues is derived from rites of an emphatically shaman character, performed at the request of the lay population to drive off the evil spirits.

1 Csoma, Journ. As. Soc. Beng., Vol. VII., p. 145. Huc, "Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet," Vol. II., p. 10. Wassiljew, "Notices sur les ouvrages en langue de l'Asie orientale," &c., Bull. hist.-phil. de St. Pet., Vol. XIII., pp. 233, 242. Köppen, "Die Religion des Buddha,” Vol. II., P. 117. About the miracles executed by Buddhist priests previous to Tsonkhapa, see Marsden "The travels of Marco Polo,” p. 169.

BUDDHISM IN CHINA, LADÁK, AND SIKKIM.

2

71

With reference to the introduction of Buddhism into China Proper, I will only add, that as early as the year 217 B.C. an Indian missionary is said to have preached in that country, but the Emperor sent him away, and Buddhism in China did not become fully established till the year 65 A.D., when it was received with universal pleasure.1 According to Cunningham, Buddhism was introduced into Ladák about the year 240 B.C., but its final domestication in the country, seems not to have been anterior to the first century before the Christian era. The historical books concerning the early history of Ladák are said to have been destroyed about at the end of the sixteenth century by the fanatic Mussalmans of Skárdo who invaded the country, burned the monasteries, temples, and religious monuments, and threw the contents of the various libraries into the river Indus. But the reign of the Mussalmans was of but short duration, and the Buddhists have not been oppressed since this period.

In the Eastern Himalaya, in Bhután and Sikkim, the conversion of the inhabitants to Buddhism was effected at a comparatively modern date, namely about the sixteenth century of the Christian era. The cir

3

1 Lassen, "Indische Alterthumskunde,” Vol. II., p. 1078, Vol. IV., p. 741. W. Schott, "Ueber den Buddhaismus in Hochasien," p. 18. About the fate of Buddhism in China see "Nouveau Journal Asiatique," 1856, pp. 106, 137, 139. C. Gützlaff, R. As. Soc., Vol. XVI., p. 73.

2 Cunningham, "Ladák," p. 317. When at Leh, my brothers came into possession of several large historical books. A particular value was laid upon two books entitled Gyelrap salvai melong "a true mirror of the Gyelrap," or the genealogy of the Rajas of Ladák, which were obtained from Chigmet Choiki Senge, a descendant of the former Rājas.

3 Hooker, "Himalayan Journals," Vol. I., p. 127. Köppen, "Die Religion des Buddha," Vol. II., p. 360.

cumstances attending the introduction of the new religion are well known to the lamas of these countries, who are still in possession of many historical books treating of this interesting subject. Of works of this class we have, in our own private library, a manuscript account of "The first arrival of the Lamas in Sikkim," in twelve leaves, written with small characters; besides a printed, "History of the Erection of Colleges," consisting of no less than three hundred and seventy-five leaves. Both of these books were originally contained in the library of Pemióngchi, and were obtained in Sikkim by my brother Hermann.

Buddhist sects in Tíbet.

Sects did not exist in Tíbet previous to to the eleventh century; nine are still existing and are considered orthodox, we know, however, but few details about them. The sect founded by Tsonkhapa and its later subdivisions have chosen the yellow colour for their dress; the others wear in preference a red garb. The sects are:1

1. The Nyigmapa sect is the most ancient, which the Lamas of Bhután, Gnári Khórsum and Ladák belong. This sect adheres strictly to the ancient rites and ceremonies in the manner probably taught by the earliest Chinese priests, and possesses some pe

1 See Csoma's Chronological table, Note 18 in his "Grammar,” p. 197; Colloquial phrases, ibid. p. 175; Notices, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal., Vol. VII., p. 146; Cunningham, "Ladák," pp. 367-72; Köppen, "Die Religion des Buddha," Index.