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culiar symbolical works which have not been embodied in the large compilations of the Kanjur and Tanjur works.

2. The Urgyenpa sect (disciples of Urgyen, or Padma Sambhava) is also one of the most ancient, and has its adherents especially in those parts of Tíbet which border on Nepál and the Himalayan provinces of India; but the principal monastery of this sect is at Samyé, in Eastern Tíbet. The Urgyenpas differ from the Nyigmapas in the worship of the incarnation of Amitabha as Padma Sambhava.

3. The Kadampa sect, founded by Bromston (born in the year 1002 A.D.), limits itself to the observance of the "precepts" (bka'), and does not care for the acquirement of the higher branches of transcendental wisdom. The followers of this sect wear red dresses.

4. Respecting the sect Sakyapa, nothing is known, except that its followers wear a red costume.

5. The Gelukpa, or Galdanpa and Geldanpa sect, a name derived from its principal monastery, called Gáldan, at Lhássa, which had been erected by Tsonkhapa: this sect adheres to his doctrines and institutions. Its members wear a yellow costume, and are now the most numerous sect in Tíbet.

6. The adherents of the Kargyutpa sect, "the believers in the succession of precepts," are satisfied with the observance of the Do (Sutras or aphorisms), and do not care either for the attainment of the esoteric doctrines of the Prajna Pāramitā, or for the transcendental wisdom.

7. The Karmapa sect, "the believers in the efficacy of works," seems to be nearly identical with the Karmika sect of Nepál.1

8. The Brikungpa sect derives its name from the monastery Brikung in Eastern Tibet. This sect, as well as the two preceding ones (the Kargyutpa and Karmapa), are offshoots of the Gelukpa sect, and also adhere to their rule of dressing in yellow.

9. The Brugpa (also Dugpa or Dad Dugpa) sect has established a particular worship of the Dorje (Vajra, or thunderbolt), which descended from heaven and fell upon the earth at Séra in Eastern Tíbet. This sect seems, moreover, to be particularly addicted to the Tantrika mysticism, in which the Dorje is considered as a very important and powerful instrument.

To these nine sects must be still added the Bon religion, which has many followers called Bonpas, and numerous and wealthy monasteries in Eastern Tíbet. As yet little is known about the Bon religion. Judging from the way in which Tibetan books speak of the followers of this sect, it is probable that the name Bonpa was restricted to those who neglected to embrace Buddhism upon its first introduction. By degrees they have, however, adopted Buddhist principles, still rigorously preserving as far as we are able to infer from the meagre information hitherto known about them, the ancient superstitious ideas and rites of the primitive inhabitants of Tibet. This opinion is also that of Csoma, and is

About these see Hodgson, "Illustrations," pp. 82, 112.

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later supported by Hodgson, who has recently published several engravings of their deities; it is further corroborated by the important fact, that to the exorcists of some of the ruder Himálayan tribes, as the Murmis and Sunvars, the name of "Bonpa" is applied even to the present day.1

The Bodhimör in Ssanang Ssetsen's history, pp. 351, 367. Csoma, "Geographical Notice of Tibet," in "Journ. As. Soc, Beng.," Vol. I., p. 124; "Dictionary of the Tibetan language," p. 94. B. H. Hodgson, "Notice on Buddhist symbols," in Royal As. Soc., Vol. XVIII., p. 396. The identity of these Bonpa images with those met with in the temples of the orthodox Buddhists (the only difference existing in the name) is a further corroboration of the close alliance (already examined p. 48) of the Buddhist faith with pagan rituals and ideals.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SACRED LITERATURE.

WORKS TRANSLATED FROM SANSKRIT, AND WORKS WRITTEN IN TIBETAN.— THE TWO COMPILATIONS KANJUR AND TANJUR.-TIBETAN LITERATURE IN EUROPE.-ANALYSIS OF THE MANI KAMBUM.-NAMES AND REPRESENTATIONS OF PADMAPANI.

THE earlier religious books published in Tibetan are simply translations from the Sanskrit, undertaken by Indian priests, Tibetan translators (Lotsavas), and also Chinese. The work of translation was carried on with remarkable zeal and energy; for the sake of uniformity a vocabulary of the Sanskrit proper names, and of the technical and philosophical terms occurring in the original texts, was prepared, and the latter was ordered to be adhered to. But it is to be regretted that the trans

The first steps of this undertaking date perhaps from the times of Srongtsan Gampo and Thumi Sambhota. This vocabulary still exists in threc editions, varying according to the greater or smaller number of terms contained in them; that of middle size was composed in the time of Ralpachen, or Khiral, who ruled in the ninth century: it is comprised in the Tanjur. Wilson, "Note on the literature of Tibet." Gleanings in science, Vol. III., p. 247. Compare also Hodgson, As. Res., Vol. XVI., p. 434.-For many books the names of the translators have been preserved to us.

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lators, instead of supplying us with correct versions, have interwoven them with their own commentaries, for the purpose of justifying the dogmas of their several schools. To these alterations of the genuine text is chiefly owing the obscurity that has so long shrouded the subject and prevented a clear understanding of the principles of the original Buddhism and its subsequent divisions.

Simultaneously with the formation of a Tibetan alphabet, books were also written in the native tongue. The Mani Kambum, which is an historical work attributed to Srongtsan Gampo, is the production of a Tibetan; and, besides this, the "Grammatical Introduction," and the "Characteristic Letters" of Thumi Sambhota, as well as the historical works on Tíbet written by the ancient Tibetan translators, appear to have been composed in the vernacular tongue. 1 From the fourteenth century, beginning with Tsonkhapa, native literature developed itself on a large scale. a large scale. Tsonkhapa himself published systematic works of a most voluminous character; his principal works are the Bodhi-mur, the Tarnim-mur, the Altanerike, and the Lamrim "a degree to advance," a title which has also been employed by other writers. Many learned Tibetans also used the vernacular in composing their numerous commentaries on Buddhist dogmas and history; and in writing in Tibetan they were followed even by the Mongolians, who were obliged to learn Tibetan because it formed (then, as now) the sacred language of divine service.

1 Also Csoma, in his paper on historical and grammatical works in Tíbet, does not mention Sanskrit titles for these books, as he otherwise usually does when treating of works translated from Sanskrit.