may be studied for climax. The point is, which of the two expresssions has the more energy; whether the craven fear of striking or the malignant willingness to wound deserves the place of emphasis. It is probably a case of nearly even balance.

To suckle fools and chronicle small beer' is a climax of degradation and contempt. Yet, although the chronicling of small beer has the crowning insignificance, the suckling of fools is so despicable, that it might claim to be the more powerful.

That strength may arise from Concreteness or Individuality, has been already illustrated (Figures of Similarity). Hence, as pointed out by Campbell, this circumstance may operate in making a climax. 'No man can serve two masters: e ye cannot serve God and

Mammon.'

Campbell's example is from the Song of Solomon :-'for, lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear on the earth, the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land; the fig-tree putteth forth her green figs, and the vines with the tender grape give a good smell'. description commences with the generalities, winter,' the season of 'rain'; proceeds to specialize the flowers,' the birds'; and comes at last to individuals, the turtle,' 'the fig-tree,' and 'the vine'.

The

The following passage from Robert Hall is a study of climax :—

Though it is confessed great and splendid actions are not the ordinary employment of life, but must, from their nature, be reserved for high and eminent occasions; yet that system is essentially defective which leaves no room for their production. They are important, both from their immediate advantage and their remoter influence. They often save, and always illustrate, the age and nation in which they appear. They raise the standard of morals; they arrest the progress of degeneracy; they diffuse a lustre over the path of life; monuments of the greatness of the human soul, they present to the world the august image of virtue in her sublimest form, from which streams of light and glory issue to remote times and ages; while their commemoration, by the pens of historians and poets, awakens in distant bosoms the sparks of kindred excellence.'

There is here a rivalry of two circumstances-utility, comprising solid advantages, and ornament or splendour. The last sentence but one places them in naked juxtaposition: 'They always save, and often illustrate, the age and nation in which they appear'. In the concluding sentence, the contrasting ideas are expanded. The two first members of the sentence are devoted to the useful function; while the remaining members expand, with Hall's luxuriant phraseology, the ornamental function; as in the phrases - 'diffuse a lustre,' monuments of the greatness,' august image of virtue,' 'streams of light and glory'. It is evident that, in the author's judgment, the ornamental side was most fitted for the climax ; and, on such a point, we cannot quote a greater authority.

Even when the interest of composition is sustained by variety of language and of emotional effects, as in alternating sublimity and pathos, the principle of the climax is not dispensed with, in regard to each separate strain.

EXAMPLES OF CLIMAX.

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The consideration of Climax brings into view the very important principle of setting forth what is grand by a gradual approach, that is, by an interposed series. It is impossible to do justice to the greatest objects of human emotion, unless by comparing them with inferior things, in a graduated succession. We reach the highest mountains, by toiling through a number of successive heights, each topping the preceding. The Ocean and the Starry Firmament do not impress us with an adequate sense of their grandeur, from the want of successive steps of approach. We do not appreciate the lofty position occupied by the commander of an army, or by the head of the government, until we learn the official grades that have to be passed through before that is reached.

This is illustrated by Tennyson, in Guinevere's words—

The days will grow to weeks, the weeks to months,
The months will add themselves, and make the years,
The years will roll into the centuries,

And mine will ever be a name of scorn.

Burke's peroration, in the impeachment of Warren Hastings, seems intended for a climax, but the gradation is scarcely apparent. I impeach him in the name of the Commons of Great Britain in Parliament assembled, whose parliamentary trust he has abused (1). I impeach him in the name of our holy religion, which he has disgraced (2). Î impeach him in the name of the English constitution, which he has violated and broken (3). I impeach him in the name of the Indian millions, whom he has sacrificed to injustice (4). I impeach him by the name and by the best rights of human nature, which he has stabbed to the heart' (5). The third sentence should have been second; between the third and fourth there would then have been a natural connexion. The fourth derives its strength from speciality; while the fifth can merit the highest place only by the width of its comprehension, which redeems the abstractness of the subject, the rights of human nature'.

As Impressiveness is a quality in compositions addressed to the Understanding, the law of Climax finds a place in these, no less than in such as aim at strictly emotional effects.

The terms anti-climax' and 'bathos' are employed to designate the opposite of the climax.

MINOR FIGURES.

Nearly all the Figures above enumerated were known to the ancient Rhetoricians; but in their list was included a large number besides. Of that number, many are wholly insignificant; others are mere repetitions. A few are of sufficient consequence to deserve a brief mention.

Reiteration of words has often a certain figurative force. It was variously named, according to the nature of the repetition. For

example, simple reiteration of the same word was called Palilogia or Anadiplosis: O earth, earth, earth, hear the word of the Lord!' Reiteration at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences was named Epanaphora: as when Burke introduces each new charge in his Impeachment of Warren Hastings with the words, I impeach him.* At the end of clauses, the reiteration is called Antistrophe : 'Wit is dangerous, eloquence is dangerous, a talent for observation is dangerous, everything is dangerous that has efficacy and vigour for its characteristics".

In all the forms, the object gained is an increase of Emphasis. Absence of connecting conjunctions where they might be expected, constitutes Asyndeton; as in Cæsar's 'Veni, vidi, vici’.It conduces to energy and vividness.† See Psalm civ., 28-30. The opposite of this Figure is Polysyndeton, or excess of connectives, in which increased emphasis is gained by seeming to individualize each particular. It is so characteristic of Tennyson as to be a mannerism. A good example occurs in Romans viii., 38, 39. Milton says of Satan, in his course through Chaos, that he—

pursues his way,

And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.

Litotes, or Meiosis, is a figure of suggestiveness, by which a weaker expression is used, while intended to suggest a stronger to the mind. A citizen of no mean city.'

Narcissa's nature, tolerably mild,

To make a wash, would hardly stew a child.

Epanorthosis is the correction of an inadequate expression by one more exact or powerful. 'War is the work, the element, or rather the sport and triumph of death.' 'The defence was obstinate and brave. Brave, did I say? It was worthy of heroes.' The effect is to give a vivid representation of the workings of the speaker's own mind, while at the same time affording scope for a climax.‡

This is a favourite form with Cicero; for example: 'Sed credunt improbis, credunt turbulentis, credunt suis. Die Khetorik der Griechen und Römer, by Dr R. Volkmann, p. 399.

An effective example occurs in 'Tam o' Shanter':

The piper loud and louder blew,

The dancers quick and quicker flew,

They reel'd, they set, they cross'd, they cleekit,

Till ilka carlin swat and reekit.

Oxymoron was employed to designate the writing of a subject with a predicate in contradiction to it; or when used more loosely, the conjunction of words apparently inconsistent with each other. This effect has already been fully discussed under EPIGRAM.

For a complete enumeration of the Tropes and Figures, as recognized by the ancient Rhetoricians, reference may be made to the work of Dr. Volkmann already mentioned-Die Rhetorik der Griechen und Römer, §§ 45, 47, 48, 49. Quinctilian took objection to the useless multiplication of Figures by many of his predecessors, though oven he gives a list of considerable length.

THE INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES OF STYLE.

1. The Qualities of Style are expressed by a great number of epithets, making up our critical vocabulary of praise and dispraise.

In what has been said under Order of Words, Number of Words, Sentence and Paragraph, Figures of Speech, explanations have been afforded of many of the qualities of style. Under Order of Words, we have the distinction between the grammatical, or Direct, and the Inverted style. The reference to the Number of Words determines, on the one hand, the Diffuse or Verbose, and, on the other, the Concise or Terse. The attention paid to the laws of the Sentence and the Paragraph contributes, with other arts, to numerous excellences of style, especially as regards the understanding. Under Figures, a composition abounding in any one individual figure takes its designation from that figure; as Metaphorical, Antithetical, Epigrammatic, Hyperbolical, Climactic, Ironical, Sarcastic, Elliptical. A profusion of figurative language generally gives a composition the names Figurative, Flowery, Ornate, Imaginative, Illustrative; to which are opposed the Plain, Prosaic, Unfigurative, Dry, Bald.

2. These qualities fall under the two great divisions already indicated. (See FIGURES OF SPEECH.)

They relate, first, to the UNDERSTANDING, or Thought, and second, to FEELING, or the Emotions. The two kinds need to be considered separately.

The proper course of dealing with both sets of qualities, is (1) to define them with precision, and (2) to indicate the arts of producing them.

3. The Qualities relating to the communication of Thought, are those that govern the three forms of Literary Art, named Description, Narration and Exposition.

Each of the forms has laws peculiar to itself. Nevertheless, there are merits common to all, and produced by the same means in all, namely :

CLEARNESS.

SIMPLICITY, or Intelligibility.
IMPRESSIVENESS.

PICTURESQUENESS.

The intellectual property of style, by pre-eminence, is Clearness. Unless a meaning be given clearly, it is not given at all. There may be a certain amount of effort in grasping the meaning, but, when understood, it ought to be unambiguous and unmistakable. The greater or less ease of comprehension depends upon other causes; as will be shown under the head of Simplicity. A quality distinct from either Clearness or Simplicity is designated by Impressiveness, which trenches on the Emotional Qualities, but is here viewed as an aid to the understanding. Picturesqueness comes even nearer the Emotions.

Much has already been advanced to elucidate these qualities and to point out the means of attaining them. Under Order of Words, Number of Words, the Sentence and the Paragraph, and Figures of Speech, have been indicated numerous devices for securing all three effects.

At various points of the exposition, important principles have been brought into view, in their bearing on the whole art of intellectual communication. A summary of these principles, and of others not previously adverted to, will be a convenient approach to expounding the Intellectual properties in separation.

4. I. In all communication of knowledge, we must proceed on a basis of the known.

In teaching any subject, we have to take measure of the pupil's present advancement, and must not assume anything beyond. A composition with a number of unknown terms fails to accomplish the end of instruction. The art of education consists in proceeding step by step from what is already known to what is to be learnt.

In directing anyone to a place, we must start from some known locality, and give the course from that. Thus in Geography, every new object is given by reference to others already pointed out. The Atlantic Ocean is localized by