THE PARAGRAPH.

1. The division of discourse next above the Sentence is the Paragraph. It is a collection, or series, of sentences, with unity of purpose.

Between one paragraph and another, there is a greater break in the subject than between one sentence and another. The internal arrangement comes under laws that are essentially the same as in the sentence, but on a greater scale.

The Paragraph Laws are important, not only for their own sake, but also for their bearing on an entire composition. They are the general principles that must regulate the structure of sections, chapters, and books. The special laws applying to different kinds of prose composition-Description, Narrative, Exposition, and Persuasion-cannot supersede those general principles; they only deal with the matter in hand from a higher point of view. Apart from the application of these higher laws, we may adapt an old homely maxim, and say, 'Look to the Paragraphs, and the discourse will take care of itself'.

DISTRIBUTION INTO SENTENCES.

2. The consideration of the Unity of the individual Sentence leads up to the structure of the Paragraph, as composed of sentences properly parted off.

We have seen that, in adjusting sentences, the comparative breaks of meaning in the successive statements must be attended to; whence the unity of the sentence enters into the domain of paragraph law.

The following example, from Helps's Spanish Conquest in America, is a study of distribution in a Narrative paragraph. The subject is an expedition of Ojeda along the American coast near the River Darien. He captured a number of Indians and a quantity of gold in the course of his voyage, and, disembarking, founded San Sebastian.

"Ojeda sent his stolen gold and Indians home to Saint Domingo, "in order that more men and supplies might be despatched to him;

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"and he inaugurated the building of his new town by a foray into "the territories of a neighbouring Indian chief, who was reported to 'possess much gold." Here two separate facts are stated in one sentence, the author judging it inexpedient to devote a sentence to each. The facts are closely related in time, and the separation of a semicolon is thought enough for them. The concluding clause is explanatory, but it is an explanation that also saves a narrative clause. It suggests the purpose of the expedition, namely, the search for gold, and at the same time accounts for it.

"This foray, however, produced nothing for Ojeda, and his men "were soon driven back by clouds of poisoned arrows.' " Again two distinct facts are brought together, mainly to avoid the multiplication of short sentences. In reciting the four statements now given, the writer has thought fit to introduce the sentence break between the second and the third. But a minute attention to the comparative degrees of intimacy of the four facts, might suggest the end of the first as the greater break; the second, third, and fourth being all related to the one matter of the foray against the Indians.

The author now commences a new paragraph, to suit the transition to a new subject.

"How their people should be fed, seems always to have been a "secondary consideration with these marauding governors; and, "indeed, on like occasions, in all periods of the world, it appears as "if gold were supposed to be meat, drink, and clothing, the know"ledge of what it is in civilised communities creating a fixed idea of "its universal power, of which people are not able to divest them"selves." The second member of this sentence is a sort of generalization of the remark contained in the first, which is itself a general observation prefatory to the next part of the narrative. Long as this second member is-being a general maxim burdened with a clause of reason or explanation,-the writer did well to place it as an appendage to the previous clause, to which it ought to be kept in subordination. This will be seen still better from the next sentence.

"Famine now began to make itself felt at St. Sebastian." This sentence joins on naturally to the first part of the foregoing, and would not have joined on so well to the second part, if that had been made a separate sentence. The author has thought fit to confine this sentence to a single fact. The brevity of it makes a not unacceptable contrast to the length of the preceding.

"Just at this point of time, however, a supply from a most appropriate quarter came suddenly to the aid of the hungry inhabi"tants of the new town." A single statement occupies this sentence also. It might have been coupled with the foregoing, although, on the whole, the present arrangement is preferable.

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"There came in sight a vessel, which had been stolen from some Genoese by its commander Bernardino de Talavera, who was bringing it to the new settlement, as being a place where "the title to any possessions would not be too curiously looked

EXAMPLE OF SENTENCE DISTRIBUTION.

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"into." The first clause-There came in sight a vessel'-contains the only fact essential to the narrative, but the author indulges in a little digression or by-plot, informing the reader how the vessel came. Such digressions are unavoidable, and often proper in narrative; and one mode of keeping them from trenching on the main story is to make them subordinate members of a sentence whose principal is the main story. To erect them into distinct sentences, on the plea of unity, would be to substitute a greater evil for a less. "The supplies which this vessel brought, were purchased by Ojeda, and served to relieve for a moment the famishing colony." The principal subject connects the sentence with the principal member of the foregoing 'There came in sight a vessel,' and the digressional explanation is no more heard of. The sentence itself contains two facts, so nearly allied that a comma is enough to divide them.

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“But their necessities soon recommenced; and, with their "necessities, their murmurings." The break between this and the foregoing is enough to make a distinct sentence. Also its two component facts are, as in the former case, nearly related, and proper to be joined in the same sentence. It is probable that there would not have been even a semicolon pause, but for the occurrence of the two commas enclosing the phrase with their necessities'.

"The Indians also harassed them by perpetual attacks, for the "fame of Ojeda's deeds was rife in the land, and the natives were "naturally very unwilling to have such a neighbour near them." The change of subject requires a new sentence; the main clause is followed by two clauses of reason or explanation, so necessary as to be added on with merely a comma break.

"The Spanish Commander did what he could to soothe his people, by telling them that Enciso, the partner in his expedition, "and his alcalde, was coming; and, as for the Indians, Ojeda "repelled their attacks with his usual intrepidity." Here again are two distinct but connected facts. The connection, however, is not of the closest kind; and two sentences would not have been improper.

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"His Indian enemies, however, began to understand the cha"racter of the man they had to deal with, and, resolving to play upon his personal bravery, which amounted to fool-hardiness, they laid an ambuscade for him." This has three statements, but the last contains the action, and the two others are merely preparatory. A good example of a narrative sentence.

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"The Indians then feigning an attack, Ojeda rushed out with "his wonted impetuosity, until he came within reach of their ambuscade, which concealed four bowmen." The circumstances here given all concur in describing a single action. The unity is perfect. The participial form of the commencing clause is skilfully chosen, so as not to interfere with the prominence of the principal subject, Ojeda.

These discharging their poisoned arrows, one of them passed

"through his thigh; and this was the first time, strange to say, in "his adventurous and riskful life, that he had been wounded." Again we have a unity in the action. The participial form commences for the same reason as before; the second member is an explanatory clause of the periodic form, rightly included in the same

sentence.

"No veteran, however, could have shown more indifference to "pain in the remedy which he insisted upon adopting." This is properly made a new sentence; its structure, however, is not free from exception. The place of the principal subject is occupied by a subordinate word- veteran'; and there is an awkwardness in the connection of the parts. Better thus: Nevertheless, the remedy that he insisted on adopting, showed him to surpass any veteran in indifference to pain'.

"He ordered two plates of iron brought to a white heat to be "tied on to the thigh, threatening the reluctant surgeon to hang "him if he did not apply the remedy." This also contains a single action, and therefore is in accordance with the most rigorous demands of unity.

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"It was so severe that it not only burnt up the leg and the "thigh, but the heat penetrated his whole body, so that it became necessary to expend a pipe of vinegar in moistening the bandages "which were afterwards applied." Otherwise :-'So severe was the application, that not only were the leg and the thigh burnt up, but the heat penetrated his whole body, and, in moistening the bandages that were afterwards applied, they had to expend a pipe of vinegar'. The sentence is an explanatory addition to the foregoing, and might have made one with it, but for the length and the prolixity of the resulting compound. It was also, perhaps, desirable not to accumulate the horrors of the transaction in one unbroken string.

"All this torture Ojeda endured without being bound." The impressiveness of the fact stated justifies the separateness of this brief sentence.

"Would that this terrible energy and power of endurance had "been given to a career more worthy of them!"—Appropriately closes the paragraph. The last few sentences digress from the main story, to recount the incidents personal to the chief; and after such a digression, it is desirable to resume the narrative in a new paragraph.

The passages to be given under the next, and following, Paragraph Laws, will continue the exemplification of the Distribution in Sentences.

EXPLICIT REFERENCE.

3. The bearing of each sentence of a Paragraph on the sentences preceding needs to be explicit.

CONJUNCTIONS FOR EXPLICIT REFERENCE.

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On the supposition that a paragraph is not a string of random or detached utterances, but a connected whole, the nature of the connections must be made apparent.

4.-I. One mode of explicit reference ment of suitable Conjunctions.

Conjunctions connect sentences and clauses. Those of the co-ordinating class are used to connect sentences and co-ordinate clauses; those of the sub-ordinating class, to relate a sub-ordinate clause to a principal in the same

sentence.

5. CUMULATIVE Conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs and phrases, a sub-division of the Co-ordinating conjunctions, frequently connect sentences. They add a new statement having the same bearing as those that precede.

The head and representative of the list is AND. Others are-Also, Yea, Likewise, So, Similarly, In like manner, First, Secondly, &c., Again, Besides, Then, Too (following another word), Further, Moreover, Furthermore, Add to this (which). These are all quite common. The phrases Yet another,' 'Once more,' for adding to a cumulation already very much extended, are familiar to the readers of Mr. Herbert Spencer.

6. Certain of the ADVERSATIVE conjunctions are applied to indicate the mutual bearing of consecutive

sentences.

Some of the members of this subdivision are termed Exclusive, because they indicate the exclusion of a circumstance that would otherwise be allowable. Else,' 'Otherwise,' are the chief examples; they occasionally introduce sentences, but owing to the intimacy of union that they express, their chief application is to unite clauses.

Those termed Alternative sometimes form a link between two sentences; for example, Or and Nor. When 'nor' is used without neither' preceding, it is commonly in the sense of And not': Nor would he have been mistaken'; " And he would not have been mistaken'.

We may have one sentence commencing with 'Either' and the next with 'Or'; and so with Neither and Nor. But, in general, these indicate a closeness of connection,