surrender the field to physiology; indeed, in strictness of speech, psychology, if such views have a foundation in truth, has no field of operation, no forces, no laws, not even an existence-is a pure figment of the imagination. That the will has no power of self-determination is so extremely difficult to believe, that it is safe to affirm, Few can be induced to accept the theory.

3. If mental activities are identical with molecular vibrations in the brain, then these vibrations, and the changes which accompany them, must differ in nature, in degree, or in duration, else the volitions could not differ. What causes these molecular vibrations, and the material changes which occur, to vary to such an infinite extent? Are the impressions which are conveyed over the afferent nerves different in every case? In purely subjective activities what causes volitions to differ? If the will is not possessed of the power of self-determination, there must be an almost infinite number of material causes, many of them possessing only an infinitesimal measure of potency, for otherwise the will could not reach the decisions it does.

Moreover, that not all these decisions are results of physical changes seems to be rendered probable by the fact that though the application of electricity to some portions of the gray matter of the cortex elicits muscular movements, its application to the frontal convolutions produces no manifestations,-no muscular movements, no subjective activities, no exhibitions of any kind whatever.

4. If mind and matter are identical, or the former is a product of the latter, then how shall we account for the fact that the mind may perform all its operations though one hemisphere is removed. Certainly, if all mental activities are caused by brain-substance, effects ought

to vary when the cause varies. Is it possible, other things remaining the same, that the half of a cause should be removed without producing a change in the effect? Dr. Ferrier says, "The physiological activities of the brain are not co-extensive with its psychological activities."

5. If mind and matter are identical in their substratum. it can only be, because, as Prof. Alexander Bain affirms, "Matter is a double-faced unity, with two sets of properties, the physical and the spiritual." Then are we under the necessity of believing that every atom of matter has two precisely opposite sets of properties, which are so conjoined that they cannot be separated without annihilating the atom; and of course psychological activities must correspond accurately with physiological activities. This, it is conceded by Dr. Ferrier, and even by Prof. Bain, is not the case. Hence we conclude that matter is not a "somewhat" in which spiritual and physical properties inseparably co-inhere.

CHAPTER XXII.

AUTOMATIC ACTIVITY OF THE CEREBRUM.

THOSE who regard man as a machine-thoughts, desires, judgments, and volitions being mere products of a self-adjusting mechanism which is kept running by appropriating air, water, food, and sunshine-are careful to remind us that not only are the spinal cord and the lower ganglionic centers capable of reflex movements, over which the will has no control and of which the ego may be unconscious; but that even the higher centers in the cerebrum have automatic activities which are independent of volition, and of which we may be totally ignorant.

As it is unwise to ignore facts, which are helpful, from whatever source they may emanate; and as truth is a welcome visitant in whatever garb she may present herself, and however unexpectedly she may knock for entrance at the door of the mind,—no harm can come from the following concessions: There is an automatic activity of the cerebrum; of this automatic activity the ego may have no conscious knowledge.

A brief examination of the evidence upon which these statements rest will aid in establishing the theory that the mind, though some of its activities are automatic, ist not a mere machine run by unknown forces.

These automatic activities in the higher ganglionic centers are of three kinds, as they are in the lower gan

glia. (1) Those activities which are purely automatic, like instinctive movements in the lower animals; e. g., the selection by worker-bees (when no queen is produced) of worker-eggs or worker-larvæ not yet three days old, which, after being hatched or carefully deposited in elaborately constructed "queen cells," are fed on "royal jelly," causing them to come forth perfect queens, their bodily organization and their physical capabilities being thereby essentially changed;-the instinctive acts of a certain species of caterpillar, which, being accustomed to make its hammock in six parts, if taken from its completed hammock and placed in an incomplete one will finish it, or if taken from an incomplete one and placed in a complete one will add to its adopted home the parts it would have added to its own;-the instinctive acts of sucking and crying in the human infant born without a brain;—the movements in a human subject after division of the spinal cord. (2) Those activities. which are secondarily automatic, that is, such as have become automatic through habit; e. g., walking, which, though voluntary in the sense that we can start or stop at will, is capable of being continued after the will is withdrawn, soldiers having continued walking, as they have horseback-riding, when in profound sleep, in which state the will is inactive; in which secondarily automatic activities the nervous mechanism acquires the power of movement independent of volition, and acquires it as a result of the repetition of similar acts, especially during youth, when new brain-tissue in which such combinations may be established is more rapidly and more easily formed. (3) Those automatic movements which are effects of the two preceding causes--some unusual stimulus acting upon centers which are in a state of susceptibility to slight influences; e. g., the convulsive actions

characteristic of epilepsy and hysteria; the running of an artificially hatched chick in obedience to the call of a hen; the alarm of a young fox on hearing the barking of the hounds; the sudden start man makes on hearing an unexpected sound; the closing of the eyelids when a bright light is suddenly flashed before them—which has sometimes happened in the case of persons who, owing to paralysis, were incapable of closing the eyes by an act of will; muscular contraction which, after being ordered by the will, continues without any further act of volition until an order to relax is issued. This muscular sense may be lost, a person being thereby rendered incompetent to determine the state of the muscles, for example those of the arm, except by the aid of vision; and consequently being incapable of holding anything in the hand, if the eyes are withdrawn from it, vision being necessary to keep the will in operation and to determine the condition of the muscles.

Automatic mechanism occurs, then, in the operations of the cerebrum. An animal, so far as it is ruled by instinct, is a mere automaton; but in proportion as it is directed by reason and by will, its purely automatic actions are limited in number. Consequently, if in the ascending series of organic beings, the self-determined activities of each are compared with the cerebral development, such a correspondence is discovered as leaves little room to doubt that the cerebrum is the organ of those psychical operations which pass under the designations, “rational and volitional." When we come to man, in whom the cerebrum is most fully developed, the primarily automatic activities are comparatively few in number; the secondarily automatic actions-those originally initiated by the will, and which have become automatic only through continued repetition-are more numerous; and those