4. It is a law of economical thinking, that qualifying circumstances should precede what they are meant to qualify.

This principle is otherwise expressed thus: 'No concrete image should be suggested until the materials for it have been presented'. The reason is, that if the name of the concrete thing is given first, horse,' for example, the image formed by the mind is likely to be wrong; probably a brown horse is pictured as the most common. Hence, when the word 'black' is added, the mental image must be unmade; the brown colour has to be suppressed and the black inserted, unless in so far as we have been accustomed to suspend the act of conceiving, until all the expected qualifications are known. It is, therefore, better that the word < 'black' should prepare the way for the mention of horse'. The English usage of placing the adjective before the noun, is thus justified on principle. So with the adverb and the verb.

From the same consideration, a conditional clause should precede the main clause. If the main clause is stated first, the hearer receives it unconditionally, and, afterwards, on the mention of a condition, has to re-shape the meaning.

The following is an example of the conditional clause placed first.

'Were the honour given to wealth and to title bestowed exclusively on high achievements and intrinsic worth, how immense would be the stimulus to progress!'

The next instance, which is from Bacon, supplies an instructive contrast: A crowd is not company, and faces are but a gallery of pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love'. Most readers will take the three statements in their broad generality, without suspecting the serious limitation, till it comes in at the end; and so the meaning of the sentence has to be reconstructed in the mind. This awkward effect would be entirely prevented by simply placing the condition at the beginning.

As the predicate of a proposition is intended to modify the subject, or to give us a new way of looking at it in the future, there is some reason for commencing with the predicate, as, in fact, is often done: 'Great is the mystery of godliness'. On the other hand, it being the recognised purpose of a proposition to add to our previous knowledge of a subject, or else to withdraw some circumstance erroneously attributed to it, we prepare our minds to receive the

RELATIVE EMPHASIS OF SENTENCE POSITIONS.

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addition, and are not unsettled by it. The sun has spots in its surface is a legitimate expository arrangement of subject and predicate. In Science, in Narrative, and in Description, scarcely any other order is in use. It is treated as the regular or grammatical order of a sentence; while the deviations are deemed exceptional, and have to be specially justified, the justification coming under the province of Rhetoric.

5. In a comprehensive treatment of the Order of Words in the sentence, we have to settle the relative emphasis of the three positions—BEGINNING, MIDDLE, and END.

In a sentence, we frequently find that a particular circumstance is more suitably placed in one position than in another. We feel some loss of power, or other disadvantage, in making any different arrangement. Strait is the gate, and narrow is the way' is preferred to 'The gate is strait, and the way narrow'. For John is immediately before us,' we say more forcibly-Immediately before us is John'.

Every sentence, except the very briefest, has certain words that have naturally a greater importance than others. The question then arises, in which position-beginning, middle, or end-is prominence best imparted.

6. As a rule, the least prominent position in the sentence is the MIDDLE. Hence, for giving prominence, we must choose either the BEGINNING or the

END.

In listening to a sentence having more than two circumstances, our attention naturally falls upon the first, because of its being presented first, while the mind is fresh. There is a diminution of strain in attending to what follows, till we come to the conclusion, which has the benefit of the pause; the effect of this being to enhance the latest impression.

The longer the sentence, the more liable are we to flag in the middle portions, while we remember the end, on account of the pause before commencing the next sentence. A part of the effect is due to the stimulus of the completed meaning any word that relieves the suspense and lightens up the whole suddenly acquires importance.

It is true, there are artificial means of giving emphasis, by which prominence may be imparted to any position in the sentence. In writing, this

is done by underlining the words, and in printing by italics or capitals; but such devices are suited only to occasional and special cases. In speaking, we have at our command the varied modulations of the voice, which can no doubt distribute emphasis with wonderful facility. Yet even the speaker is not independent of the naturally emphatic positions in the

sentence.

7. There remains the question-What is the difference in emphasis, if any, between the BEGINNING and the END?

The not unfrequent inversion of the order of prose, or of exposition, would seem to show that the beginning is a place of greater emphasis than the end. 'His resources were prodigious,' can be changed with advantage into 'prodigious were his resources,' as if the strong adjective 'prodigious' affected us more in the beginning than in the end. This, however, is not all that is gained by the change.

8. In commencing a sentence with an energetic predicate, greater stress is thereby thrown upon the subject.

In a sentence opening with such a strong predicate adjective as 'prodigious,' our attention is aroused to learn what the subject can be that calls forth so strong a predication. We wait in anxious suspense for the conclusion announcing the subject; and we are much more attentive than if we had begun with it. The only way to attain the same intensity of regard, in the ordinary or direct order'his resources were prodigious '-would be to go back upon the subject resources,' after hearing the word prodigious,' and heighten our impression accordingly.

9. Both usage and reason agree in regarding the END of the sentence as the place of greatest strength or emphasis.

The usage will be made apparent in the series of examples that are to follow.

The reasons have been to some degree anticipated. They are these :—

(1.) The predicate of a sentence is of the nature of a qualifying circumstance; and it is the general law of qualifying circumstances to precede. Now these are, from their very nature, ordinarily less important than the things qualified, of which they are but a part.

(2.) The mental law of the excitement due to suspense is

MOTIVES TO INVERSION.

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in favour of the greater impressiveness of the closing circumstance, whatever that may be.

We can remark that, on introducing a new fact intended to be emphatic, the disposition is to place it at the end; and this confirms the conclusion that greater emphasis belongs to this position. Add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge.' Compare this with- Add virtue to your faith; and knowledge to virtue'. Only by the emphasis of a special pronunciation could the same importance be given to new members.

10. There are various incidental motives to inversion, besides the natural influences now stated.

(1.) When the predicate is a simple adjective, and the subject loaded with qualifying circumstances, there is a felt convenience in giving the predicate first. This appears in the Beatitudes, and is one, but not the only, reason for their inverted order throughout.

(2.) The Adverbial qualifications in a sentence often control the order, for the sake of getting their proper play.

Mary thinks so too.' The crush of the two adverbs 'so' and 'too' has a slightly embarrassing effect; and we feel that the play of both is freer thus:- So thinks Mary too'.

(3.) Inversion occasionally assists in connecting a sentence with what precedes or follows. The complete elucidation of this influence falls under the laws of the PARAGRAPH.

(4.) To all this it must be added that a certain power belongs to the inversion from the mere fact of its being the less usual order. When a writer thinks it necessary to deviate from the ordinary arrangement, the deviation naturally excites our attention. It is this that makes the inverted order so natural a device when poetic and rhetorical effects are sought; even when no other advantage is gained, the unusual form of sentence gives to the style a certain strength and elevation. In this respect English, while much less free in its order than such highly inflected languages as Latin and Greek, has still some advantage in comparison with these tongues. It is more restricted in its power of placing any word of the sentence in the emphatic positions; but this very restriction gives the inversion, when it can be used, so much more rhetorical power. In the classical languages, the devices of emphasis can be more frequently employed, but are generally less striking. Hence, when the emphasis of a Latin or Greek sentence is sought to be preserved in translation by giving a corresponding order in English, there is often a danger of really producing more emphasis than is conveyed by the original translated; besides that the sentence may take on a rhetorical flavour not contained in the classical form. This consideration is sometimes overlooked by translators.* The inversions in

* Take the following example. There is a formula #ɩσròs ò dóyos, used in the

our translation of the Bible would often prevent it from being a correct representation of the simple prose that constitutes so large a portion of the Scriptures, if these inversions always produced their full rhetorical effect. In point of fact, however, those introduced into prose often go no farther than to constitute one element among others in the archaic colouring of the whole.

Such is a brief outline of the principles governing the departures from the regular or grammatical order of words in the sentence. We shall now, by a copious selection of examples, endeavour to illustrate their bearing and utility.

11. I.—An Adjective Predicate first.

'Great is Diana of the Ephesians'; Great is your reward in heaven'; 'Wide is the gate, and broad is the way'; 'Sweet are the uses of adversity'; 'Richer by far is the heart's adoration'; Vain are their hopes'; Few

are thy days'; 'Cold is Cadwallo's tongue'.

Both our translation of the Bible and our English poets have accustomed us to these inversions, in cases where some thought is to be expressed with more than ordinary emphasis. Prose writers also take the same liberty, although more rarely.

Additional instances from the Bible :wonderful works which Thou hast done'; marvellous are Thy works'; 'Just and ways'.

་

Many are the

'Great and true are Thy

·

The following is particularly noted by Campbell:'Babylon is fallen, is fallen, that great city'. Altered by him thus, with obvious advantage:- Fallen, fallen is Babylon, that great city'. This is the emphasis in the Greek, and has been followed in the Revised Version.

'It is good for me, that I have been afflicted' might have been Good is it for me'.

It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle-Easier were it for a camel'.

Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) to introduce some familiar Christian maxim. See 1 Timothy i. 15; iii. 1; iv. 9; 2 Timothy ii. 11; Titus iii. 8. It is variously rendered in the Authorised Version by This is a faithful saying,' 'This is a true saying,' and 'It is a faithful saying'; while the Revised Version uniformly gives, Faithful is the saying'. Now there can be no doubt that morós is the predicate, not a mere attribute of Aóyos, and also that the emphasis lies upon it; and these are the reasons for the Revisers' correction. But it may fairly be doubted whether that emphasis is so strong in the familiar Greek phrase as it is in the less usual English order. "This is a faithful saying,' really gives the same meaning, and is felt to be more in harmony with the tone of the passages, which are without poetical or rhetorical colouring.