ancient method, in sacks made of the skins of animals. The animals were driven near the spot were the soldiers were stationed. As soon as he had approached near enough to be noticed, a peg adroitly fixed in the mouth of a sack was started, and the wine consequently began to flow pretty freely from the orifice. He commenced beating himself and cry. ing out vehemently with pretended distress, at the loss. The soldiers perceiving the accident, ran with vessels to save what they could of the delicious beverage, which they considered a clear gain to themselves.

At first, with apparent anger, he reproached them for their unprincipled conduct, but gradually listened to their endeavors to console him for the misfortune. The asses were then leisurely led out of the road, apparently to secure the leak. A brisk conversation, mutually agreeable, followed. He affected to be delighted with the drollery of one of the guards, to whom he gave a generous draught of wine, and with his companions he sat down to drink,-insisting that the generous ass driver should bear them company.

As previously anticipated, the wine produced its specific effects, and the whole of them became exceedingly drunk and fell into a profound slumber. Under the advantage of nightfall, the robber adroitly took down the body, placed it in one of the sacks, and before leaving the scene of the exploit, in derision, shaved the right cheek of the quiet guards, and returned home in safety with the object of his research.

The mother was reconciled to fate, and so far as she was concerned, no further mention is made of her in the narrative of Herodotus. Not so, however, with the king; when he was told what had happened, how the body had been clandestinely removed in the presence of a select band of vigilant guards, he was both enraged and marvel-struck at a recital of the incident; but in no way relinquished the idea of detecting the bold villain. who had put his royal power at defiance. He renewedly set his ingenuity at work to detect him, and next adopted the following stratagem. The king commanded that a beautiful daughter, a princess on whom he doated with paternal solicitude, should seat herself in a magnificent apartment, alone, and a proclamation was made that whoever related the most extra. ordinary adventure in which he had been personally engaged, should become the son-in-law of the king. Each candidate was permitted to enter alone. A part of the story, of an incredible character, is here omitted. She had been previously instructed, in case any clue to the robbery of the treasury was discoverable, or the theft of the headless body, to seize the person, and give an alarm. The injunction was faithfully obeyed. The daring rogue who had already baffled Rhamsinitus more than once, could not forbear another attempt for the mere gratification of a mischievous propensity of his nature. To begin, he cut off an arm from the body of the murdered brother, at the shoulder, concealed it under a cloak, carelessly worn, and in turn gained admission to the princess.

When asked the question that was propounded to each new-comer, what he had done that was remarkable? he replied, "that the most wicked thing that he had ever done, was cutting off the head of a brother, who was caught in a snare in the king's treasury. The most artful thing, was making the guards drunk, and by that means effecting the removal of the dead body from the treasury wall." On hearing this, the princess at once seized him, but caugh. hold of the supernumerary arm, made fast to the cloak.

Both were slipped off, and the rogue made his escape from her pre. sence. When the attendants came in, lo! there was a cloak and one arm of a man, which when the king saw, he was, if possible, more puzzled than ever. Confounded by these repeated displays of an ingenious, though unknown rascal, information was extensively circulated, that if the bold offender would come fearlessly into his majesty's presence, he would not only grant a free, unconditional pardon, but would liberally reward him besides.

Trusting to the royal word, the thief made his appearance. Rhamsinitus was delighted with him, believing his transcendent skill in the art of deception beyond parallel. The king conceived the Egyptians superior in subtlety to all the world, but this man far excelled all his countrymen.

Paper currency or paper money, is a department of political economy developed in modern times to its fullest extent. Its advantages and disadvantages are variously estimated by the community, and consequently there are ardent friends and bitter opposers to this excellent, though greatly abused project for facilitating extensive mercantile, as well as the minor operations of trade in our own and other countries.

Arguments, almost irresistible in themselves, might be adduced, to show the advantages resulting from an issue of paper money, to every individual of a nation, when the contract between the bank and the people has been rigidly maintained.

On the other hand, testimony apparently no less cogent, based upon the actual experience of immense losses, when the flood-gates of loosely guarded banking corporations are widely opened, is arranged to prove that nothing short of a strictly metallic currency can safely be tolerated in any government, whether elective or hereditarily despotic. In a word, in the United States, there are two great parties in a state of activity, so thoroughly divided on this important question, that the issue is necessarily involved in the obscurity of the future.

Any want of good faith in a bank to redeem its notes at sight, at once begets alarm, and evils of an exciting character are suddenly produced. An agitation arising from that cause, cannot be readily allayed; yet it is neither philosophical, politic, nor right to condemn a principle because errors have been discovered in the application of it to human society,-any more than it would redound to the sense of justice in a state to execute every inhabitant of a particular district, because one of them had been found guilty of a great crime.

It

The revolutionary struggle was wholly sustained by the issue of continental paper money-without which, that greatest and most masterly achievement of civil liberty, it is believed, could not have been completed. Fortunately, its rapid depreciation did not take place till the war had rescued the country from foreign control, or fear of further molestation. was then apparent that congress had not the ability to redeem the bills, and it is even now doubted whether the originators and principal dramatis personæ in that most wonderful of all national emancipations, seriously entertained the expectation of doing so in future days of prosperity.

By the practical operation of the device, the country was saved, but thousands of brave estimable patriots and their families, who bore the burden of service and deprivation, were utterly ruined.

With that fatal crisis-fatal to the popularity of paper money, at least with one party-commenced that systematic hostility and prejudice which

VOL. V.-NO. IV.

43

has so pointedly shown itself on various occasions ever since. Still, however, accurate financiers discover in the modern banking system, with all its glaring defects, the source of widely extended prosperity. Without its facilities, the merchant would soon find himself circumscribed to narrow limits; and with an exclusively hard money currency, in the present character of trade, grow poor while his coffers were filled with the precious

metals.

Our object being to give an historical account of the coinage of money, simply, and not to dilate upon the policy or impolicy of measures which have raised a formidable partisan feeling between the honest and patriotic over the Union, we here leave the subject, for the commencement of another chapter, whenever events shall furnish new materials.

ART. III. THE PHILOSOPHY OF STORMS.*

No class of men, we believe, is more deeply interested in the subject of storms than that which makes up the chief part of our readers. The same winds which waft to the storehouse of the merchant the treasures of distant climes, often, in their angrier moods, put a sudden termination to his brightest prospects, and in a single hour of tempest dissipate the earnings of many years. The mercantile community will not, therefore, deem it out of place if we call their attention to the very novel and original views of our countryman, Mr. Espy, who has just published a volume containing a full exposition of his theory of storms, together with a large amount of facts which he has collected in the course of his researches on winds, rain, hail, barometric fluctuations, &c. We have looked over its pages with an interest and gratification which we seldom feel in the perusal of a work on scientific subjects, and are constrained to say that what little of prejudice had been excited against the author, by the manner in which his name became so generally known to the public, speedily vanished before the strong facts and logical deductions which he has brought together, in support of his very simple and beautiful explanation of the phenomena of nature in the production and development of storms.

Franklin was, we believe, the first to discover that our great northeast storms "travel against the wind." A violent rain having set in at Philadelphía from the northeast, he naturally enough supposed that the storm came from that direction, and was greatly surprised, on consulting the pa pers from New York and Boston, to find that it commenced raining at New York several hours after the storm set in at Philadelphia, and that the time of its reaching Boston was still later. The same anomaly was also observed by Dr. Mitchell: but it remained for Mr. Redfield, of New York, to establish, by the most satisfactory proofs, the route pursued by these storms. In his papers on this subject he has fully demonstrated that they often originate in the Windward Islands of the West Indies, where they are mostly small and round, and progress in a curve towards the

*The Philosophy of Storms, by James P. Espy, A. M., Member of the American Philosophical Society, and Corresponding Member of the National Institute, Washington. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown. 1841. 8v. pp. 552.

northwest, enlarging as they advance, and at latitude 30 inclining more to the north. Beyond this they curve to the northeast, and as far as he has been able to trace them, they pursue a direction more or less towards

the east.

Mr. Redfield has also attempted to show that in all our great storms, the wind gyrates in the form of a whirlwind; and in this he has been fol lowed on the other side of the Atlantic by Col. Reid, who has published a volume full of interesting details on the subject, in which he attempts to develop the law of storms by means of facts with a view to practical use in navigation. But neither of these gentlemen, so far as we know, have succeeded in tracing this supposed gyration to its cause, or pointed out the dependence between clouds, winds, hail, and the other phenomena of storms. Mr. Espy has taken a step beyond them, and confidently believes that he has discovered the key which is to unlock all the mysteries of meteorology, and disclose the hidden causes which produce clouds, water spouts, tornadoes, land spouts, variable winds, and barometric fluctuations. That result of Dr. Dalton's experiments on the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, by which its amount in any given space may be determined by means of a glass of water and a thermometer, may be said to constitute the basis of Mr. Espy's theory, and therefore requires a passing notice. If the reader will take a tumbler of water of the same temperature as the air, and drop into it a small piece of ice, he will find, as the water cools, that dew will settle on the outside of the tumbler. The temperature at which this dew begins to form is called the dew point: and Dalton found, in the course of his experiments, that when it began to form at 32° fah., the amount of vapor suspended in the air was of the weight of the atmosphere that when the dew point was at 52° the air contained twice as much vapor as it did at 32° or of the weight of the atmosphere, and that when the dew point was at 73° the air contained four times as much vapor as at 32° or of the weight of the atmosphere.

The dew on the tumbler is condensed from the air by the cold communicated from the tumbler, and it may also be condensed by the same de gree of cold produced in a different way. It is found that air is cooled by expansion produced by diminished pressure, and hence, when the receiver of an air pump is rapidly exhausted, and the air within expands sufficiently to cool it down to the dew point, moisture will make its appearance on the sides of the receiver, and an artificial cloud will appear. Mr. Espy supposes that it is precisely in the same way that clouds are formed in the laboratory of nature.

If a dozen feather beds were piled together one above another, the lower ones would be pressed closer than the upper, because they would not only have to sustain their own weight, but also the weight of all those above them. For the same reason the atmosphere which lies next to the surface of the earth, is subjected to much greater pressure than that which is piled up above, and this pressure must gradually decrease as you ascend. It follows then that if a current of air should pass upwards from the surface of the earth, it would be subjected to a constantly decreasing pressure, and would consequently expand: as it expanded it would grow cold, and when it reached the temperature of the dew point, it would begin to condense its vapor into sensible moisture, and thus form a cloud. This process, Mr. Espy contends, takes place constantly in the operations of Certain portions of the air becoming more heated or more highly

nature.

charged with aqueous vapor* than others, are thus made specifically lighter, and consequently rise, and when the dew point is high, these upmoving currents do not find their equilibrium until they are sufficiently expanded by the diminished pressure to which they are subjected to reduce their temperature to the point of forming dew, when a cloud will begin to appear.

The reduction of temperature which would thus be produced by the expansion of ascending air, Mr. Espy finds by experiment to be about one degree for every one hundred yards of ascent; and hence, if an upmoving current of air is ever produced in the operations of nature, it is easy to calculate how high it must rise before it begins to condense its vapor into visible cloud. For example: if, in a summer's day, the thermometer stands at 80°, and the dew point is 70°, then air must be cooled 10° before it will begin to condense its vapor into cloud. Consequently, if it cools one degree for every one hundred yards that it rises, then when it attains an elevation of ten hundred yards, it will be cooled down to the point of forming dew, when its vapor will begin to condense, and the base of a forming cloud become immediately visible. The bases of all forming clouds in the same neighborhood should therefore be nearly on the same level. Again: it is known to every chemist that vapor cannot be converted into water, without releasing a large quantity of caloric, known in technical language as the caloric of elasticity, and thus producing a considerable amount of sensible heat. If ice is exposed to heat, caloric combines with it and forms water; if water is exposed to heat, caloric combines with it and forms steam or vapor; and when vapor is converted back to water, this caloric (heat) must necessarily be released; and, according to Mr. Espy, its agency in producing wind, rain, hail, barometric fluctuations, and all the sublime and astonishing phenomena which attend our most violent storms, has hitherto been altogether overlooked. He finds, by calculating according to well known chemical laws, that the caloric of

elasticity released during the condensation of vapor while a cloud is forming, will expand the air in the cloud about eight thousand cubic feet for every cubic foot of water formed by the process of condensation.

The expansion of the air in a cloud during the formation of water, is also proved by an instrument which Mr. Espy uses, called a Nephelescope, or cloud examiner. It consists of a glass vessel [b.] communicating with a bent tube [c.] containing mercury, and having a forcing pump [a.] attached to it, by means of which any desirable quantity of air may be pressed into the receiver or glass vessel [b.] When the instrument is charged, the pressure on the inner leg of the mercury forces it up in the outer, and by carefully measuring the difference between the two, a given amount of pressure can be produced. When the air within (which is heated by the pressure) acquires the temperature of the air Vapor is five eighths the specific gravity of air.