THE

LONDON: FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4, 1868.

THE DUNWICH AND

THIS

CABLE.

ZANDVOORT

THE GOLD COINAGE OF GREAT
BRITAIN.

THIS cable, the property of the Electric and International Telegraph Company, was manufactured and submerged for them by Messrs. Glass, Elliot, and Co., in the autumn of 1858. It consisted of four wires, and has been at work, with occasional inter-protection. The main cable weighed about has been suggested that, with a view to

assimilating the gold coinage of Great Britain with that of France and other conti

The gutta-percha covered wires were manu- point where the junction with the main cable factured in lengths averaging over 3,300yds. was to be effected. The lifting of the cable, or rather more than 1.6 knot; the great ad-cutting it, and making the splice with the vantage in having the lengths so long is cable recently laid, is all that is now reMECHANICS MAGAZINE. reducing the number of joints as much as quired to complete the alteration. We trust possible, for joints may be looked upon as the now that the landing place has been changed, vulnerable point in a submarine cable. the company will benefit by the alteration, The sheathing in the eighteen miles of main and that the continued working of the cable cable consisted of eleven No. 1 best best gal-free from interruption will prove the wisdom vanized soft iron wires (in order to have as of the alteration. few welds as possible, these wires were rolled The piece of cable from Dunwich to the by Messrs. Johnson, of Manchester, in lengths place where it has to be cut will shortly be averaging over 1cwt.): each wire was first recovered. passed through a bath of bituminous compound, and then served with two reverse servings of tarred Russian hemp. After the cable had been thus sheathed it was coated with bituminous compound as a still further twelve tons per knot. The shore end cable was materially differ-nental nations, the standard of the metal ent; the core, after being wormed and served, was first sheathed with 15 No. 5 best best galvanized iron wire, coated with a layer of bituminous compound, then covered with a serving of tarred jute, and again with bituminous compound. The cable was then finally closed with an external sheathing of eleven strands, each containing three No. 5 galvanized iron wires, each strand having previously passed through a bath of compound and then covered with two reverse servings of tarred Russian hemp, the whole being covered with a good coating of bituminous compound; its total weight is 20 tons. It is really about the most massive cable ever manufactured, and with the amount of hemp and compound it contains ought to last an enormous time. The quantity of hemp, the number of servings and coatings of compound It is easy to comprehend that such an to be applied, stranding the wires, and so on, operation would in itself be attended with made the manufacture of this cable, although enormous expense and very great difficulty, the length was short, a very tedious opera- for English gold travels all over the world. tion.* The whole, however, was satisfactorily In time, however, and under a carefully completed and stowed away in the tanks organized arrangement, the work could be ready for the Company's steamer "Monarch," accomplished. Let it, then, be imagined that to be taken away in her and submerged, the great weight of the cable, and the small capacity of the ship, rendering two trips necessary.

ruptions, ever since; but it has been found that these interruptions-usually caused by ships' anchors-which occur generally more than once a year, are not so frequent further north. The Lowestoft and Zandvoort cable, which has been laid for some time, has been comparatively free from accidents, while the Dunwich cable to the south has, as we have already stated, suffered considerably. The nature of the traffic and of the coast itself at once makes the fact apparent. The anchorage at Lowestoft is well protected by sands, and is close in shore. Outside the sands, from the easterly position of the place, but little protection can be found, and vessels working tides are usually carried well to one side or the other of Lowestoft, and rarely anchor on the line of the cable. At Dunwich the case is very different; from westerly and north-westerly winds there is good protection, and it is extraordinary the number of vessels that anchor off here working tides.

The directors have wisely considered that it would be to their advantage to shift the landing-place of the cable, and on the recommendation of Mr. Culley, their engineer, they decided to bring the cable in to Lowestoft. This was rendered easier, for the cable as it approaches the English coast was laid too much to the northward in consequence of one straight course being steered across; the vessel was therefore carried each way by the tide, and on sighting the English coast, the ebb had carried them well to the northward; it has been, therefore, determined to pick up the present cable at the nearest spot, and lay a new section of improved manufacture to Lowestoft. For this purpose a length of thirty-three miles was offered for contract, the tender of the India-Rubber and GuttaPercha Company being accepted, and they forthwith proceeded with the manufacture of the cable at their works at Silvertown.

Of this length of thirty-three miles, fifteen were to form a massive shore end, the remainder being main cable of a slightly different construction to the old Zandvoort cable. The core throughout the length was of the same construction, containing four well insulated conductors according to the following specification, each copper wire to be a strand of seven No. 22 wires, of the weight of 1071b. per knot; and at a temperature of 75deg. Fah. to give a resistance of

That the specification for the conductor and insulator has been more than fulfilled the following particulars of final tests, furnished by Mr. Hawkins, the Company's electrician, will amply prove :

Insulator

Main cable. Shore end.

Contract.

composing the former should be "levelled down" to that of the latter. Without at present entering into the question as to whether this course is really desirable or not, we may furnish our readers with some facts, statistical and otherwise, in reference to our own gold coinage, and thus enable them to judge of the cost and magnitude of such a change. It has been computed, and apparently upon reliable data, that there are in actual circulation at home and throughout the colonies at least one hundred millions of sovereigns. If it were determined that the British standard should be reduced, it would be necessary that the whole of these should be called in and re-coined, because the coexistence of pieces of varying standards would be fraught with the greatest inconvenience.

the International Coinage Commissioners have recommended, or may recommend, the re-coinage of the whole quantity in question, that the Government has assented to the proposition, and that the Mint is ordered to undertake the accomplishment of the gigantic task. Then arises the question, “What will be the cost of its performance to the public?" In order to answer it with any degree of exactitude, it will be necessary to regard with care the productive powers of the Mint machinery and appliances, and the annual expense of the establishment to the country. Now, as at present constituted, the stamping presses of the Mint are capable of yielding one million of pieces per week when worked up to the maximum point, and considering each day to be ten hours long. So far as time is concerned, the re-coinage of one hundred millions of sovereigns would occupy a space of two years. The average annual vote of Parliament for the support of the Mint is £30,000, and thus it would appear, at 746 millions per the first blush, that the actual cost of conPercentage of conductivity verting the old coin into new would amount 96 per cent. to £60,000. Inductive capacity per knot 3784 Farads. These results are remarkably high, but we

Res. at 75deg. Fah. in
millions per knot

Conductor

677

806

250

Res. at 75deg. Fah.
Specific conductivity,
pure copper = 100...... 957 per ct. 96.5 per ct. 92.34
per ct.
Inductive Capacity
3784 Farad. 3784 Farad.

11-641 Ohms 11:54 Ohms 12.07

Such an estimate would, nevertheless, be

not more than 12.07 Ohms per knot, and a believe they correspond with the final tests most fallacious, even supposing-what is not

specific conductivity of 92.34 per cent. of pure copper. The insulator to be of three coatings of gutta-percha with three alternate

taken by the Electric Telegraph Company's

electricians.

likely to be the case-that the Mint authorities were enabled to pursue the work concoatings of compound, of the weight of 150lb. Before the cable was completed, the tinuously, and not to touch silver or bronze per knot. The wire when insulated to give a end and laid them from the cable house at it would be discovered that the hundred "Monarch" took away two miles of the shore coins during its progress. In the first place, resistance of not less than 250 millions of Lowestoft over the sand. The completion of millions of old sovereigns would not produce Ohms per knot after immersion for twenty-the cable was very much delayed by the a like quantity of new ones. The wasting four hours in water at a temperature of 75deg. vessel being required for repairing some power of abrasion would be found to have Fah. Each wire was numbered on the out- cables that had broken down. On the 8th produced its effects upon the money recalled side by longitudinal stripes from one to four. ult., however, she succeeded in laying the from active duty, and the loss thus entailed The advantage of having external means of shore end, and on the 28th she completed would necessitate the addition of at least half knowing the number of wires is too obvious to laying the eighteen miles of main cable from need mention. The gutta-percha wires when the shore end, to which it was spliced, to the manufactured and passed were wormed, and served in the ordinary manner with tanned

jute, and then passed through the sheathing it is known that the cable contained about 900 miles of

machine.

That this was the case may be readily imagined, when iron wire and nearly 10,000 miles of hempen strands.

a

million's worth of new metal to make up for the deficiency. Here, then, is an important item in the cost of a re-coinage, and which must not be lost sight of.

Under the most favourable circumstances, namely, when employing new gold for the

purpose of creating sovereigns, and using the vestigations connected with the subject of mum fall from the mean annual fall for any Mint presses alternately for the production of rain. Unfortunately, this information is place. Meanwhile, he gives us what" seems silver and bronze moneys-both of which are crudely digested, and bears evidence of having to be" the rule, as follows:-Where the annual struck at a profit to the Mint-the cost of been compiled with haste. Much of it is fall is 20in., the maximum fall will never each sovereign is exactly 0-311 of a penny. premature, and might have been reserved for exceed 16-100ths of that amount; where the Under the unfavourable conditions named verification with advantage. The article on annual fall is 60in., the maximum daily fall above, the cost of each newly-minted sove- monthly percentages of mean annual rainfall cannot exceed 6-100ths of the amount. Thus, reign would be enhanced to 1.271 of a penny, indicates a tendency to bend facts to suit con- for every increase of 4in. in the yearly rainor about 14d., and the total cost of the re- ception. Its statements are confused by un-fall between 20in. and 60in., the maximum coinage of a hundred millions of such pieces necessary iteration, and its conclusions are possible fall decreases one per cent; above could not therefore fall far short of one million far-fetched. So far as we can make it 60in. it is constant at 6-100ths of whatever sterling. Of course, as a set-off against this out, the chief induction said to be arrived at the mean fall may be. If this rule be true, heavy outlay, it is only proper to mention is that "taking the whole surface of England, there is no part of the British Isles where from that the reduction of the standard from one-in places where the mean annual rainfall is 3in. to 4in. of rain may not fall in twenty-four twelfth of alloy to one-tenth, as proposed, small, the general rule is that the maximum hours, at some time or other, as an extremely would, at any rate, prove an economical monthly portion of that fall occurs in summer, heavy rain; while at places where the annual operation. It would not affect the estimate whilst where the amount is very large it is in fall is 150in., there may be as much as just given to any appreciable extent, from winter. At places where an intermediate 9in. in one day. Hence it would seem that various circumstances which are too minute fall is experienced, as a rule, the maximum the limit of capacity of the rain gauges which and intricate to be examined into here. occurs between these two periods (on the are used where the rain does not exceed 70in. Independently of the advantages which autumn side), leaning more or less either a year should be 4in. in depth of the receiving might be anticipated from the assimilation of way, as their mean annual amounts vary." area, and for wetter localities the gauges the British standard of gold coin with that of The statistics adduced appear to us merely to should be more capacious. It must be reFrance, as effecting a corresponding uni- show that, generally, the largest percentages membered that this rule has not been shown formity of value between individual pieces of of rain occur in the months of July, August, to apply beyond the British Isles. money circulating in the two countries, September, and October, except at western another is suggested as likely to arise. It is stations, those having the largest annual of a mechanical nature, and not unimportant. rainfalls, where the months of November, Gold alloyed with one-tenth of copper instead December, and January may have equally as of one-twelfth, becomes much more elastic high a percentage as those just mentioned." and durable. At present, the loss of weight The peculiarity may be accounted for in this by attrition, which renders a gold coin legally way. The moisture brought from the incurrent, is about the same in the British Atlantic in winter, although less in amount and French mints. The English money, than in summer, is condensed more rapidly however, being softer in its nature, wears out at the cold than at the hot season, and thus sooner, and our sovereign is, consequently, a larger part of the winter moisture than of shorter lived than their napoleon. In the summer is deposited at the western either country, the extent to which a gold stations. coin may be reduced in weight before ceasing to be a legal tender is very small, and by no means sufficient to allow of the obliteration of their designs or to prevent their recognition. The actual diminution by wear allowed on a sovereign before its withdrawal from circulation, is 0-628 per cent. ; on a napoleon it is 0.7 per cent. an infinitesimal difference. The theoretical or true standard weight of a sovereign is 0.25680z., and that of a napoleon 6.451 grammes.* The object of making gold coins incurrent after so small an amount of wear and tear, is to guard against the fraudulent abstraction of metal from them while in circulation. It is a wise precaution, and well answers its purpose.

It is not supposed that the present brief paper on the probable reduction of the gold coinage of Great Britain to the French standard is exhaustive of the question. There are other points of interest in connection with it which may be considered hereafter. Our present end will be served if public attention be attracted to the interesting and important subject.

RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
WE have before us benent of the final
E have before us Mr. G. J. Symons's

In all questions involving considerations
of rainfall, especially for the supply of rivers
and canals, either for the purposes of naviga-
tion or the watering of towns, it is desirable
to know the annual average amount for the
district, its distribution throughout the year,
and also the probable maximum fall that may
ever occur in one day. As regards the
average yearly rainfall, no conclusion can be
safely based upon the observations of a few
years. It can be ascertained reliably only by
long-continued observations at the place, or
by reference to some long series of observa-
tions made in a proximate and analogous
locality. Thus the average depth of the
annual fall of rain at Keswick is 58-53in.,
from observations made during the years
1845 to 1866 inclusive; but the years 1845-53
gave 61.74in. For the same nine years at
Wastdale Head the average rainfall was
103.67in. It is quite legitimate to suppose
that, as these stations are not very far apart,
and are nearly the same height above the sea,
there was the same ratio between the long
and short average at each station. Hence
we can approximate to the average annual
fall at Wastdale Head by a proportion:-As
61-74 is to 58.53 so is 103-67 to 98-28, the
years 1845-66.
probable annual fall at Wastdale for the
Of course, if reference be
made to two or three other stations, somewhat
be struck which will be more satisfactory than
different results may be got, and a mean may
the result of a single comparison. This is, in
all its simplicity, the plan adopted by Mr.
Symons. However, he mystifies the process
and lengthens the calculations by percenting.
In the construction of sewers for the drainage
of cities, it is important to know the probable
maximum fall of rain in a limited time. This
limit is settled, by the practice of observers,
As regards this maximum fall,
as one day.
"though in point of quantity the western
stations maintain their excess, as well in in-
dividual falls as in the yearly totals, the heavy
falls there are relatively hardly half so large
as at the eastern stations." The rainfall at

observed at about 1,300 stations in Great
Britain and Ireland. These annual tables pre-
sent the summary of the year's observations on
rain, in an available and useful form, for the
purposes of the sanitary and civil engineer, but
we should scarcely think that they contain
sufficient details for all the purposes of
meteorological investigations. It is quite as
desirable to know the monthly distribution
of rain, as the annual. As far as these tabula-
tions extend, however, they are presented in
a methodical manner.
Mr. Symons gives the
names of the stations, the authorities for the
observations upon which his results are based,
the diameters of the gauges, the heights of
the gauges above ground and above the sea-
level, the total amount, and the number of days the western stations is more uniform in its
on which rain fell in the year at each station. distributions throughout the year than at the
Besides the tabulations, about eighty pages
are devoted to details of experiments and in-eastern ones, where the fall is, so to speak,
more spasmodic.

To the question, "On how many days will in. of rain fall?" Mr. Symons has worked out the answer :- -On fifteen days yearly, as a general average for this country. The important investigation into what are the antecedent and attendant atmospheric conditions of maximum and large rainfalls has not yet been attempted; and, indeed, the isolated character of the data furnished by rain observers will not permit of this being done. It must be left to the Meteorological Committee, who intend to investigate, so we are assured, the laws of British weather changes generally. In all except the mountainous districts, the amount of rain annually collected increases about 24 per cent. per 100ft. of increased elevation. In other words, in the greater part of the British Isles, 50ft. difference of elevation between two adjacent stations cause generally about 4-10in. difference in the yearly amounts of rain at these places during the year. Hence it is necessary for accurate investigation of rainfall to know the elevations of the stations above the sea. Rainfall returns may then be compared for places at the same level, to show the rainbearing power of the atmosphere, and for places at different elevations to exhibit the effect of high land upon the precipitation of aqueous vapour. Mr. Symons has diligently sought for this necessary data, and there are very few blanks in the column for height above sea. For the purpose of exhibiting the geographical distribution of rain by the transporting power of the atmosphere, we select from the table all places at or about 100ft. above the sea, classifying them into western and eastern. This arrangement is suggested by the fact that the annual resultant direction of our winds is westerly, or om the west. Is, then, most rain deposited where the winds first encounter the land, and least where they leave it?

Drew (Haddington). 22.90

Ayr
EASTERN STATIONS.
London
Norwich
Nottingham
Leeds
Newcastle
Seaham

These figures answer our question in the

* One ounce troy is equal to 31.104 grammes, and one Mr. Symons believes that a perfect rule
may be established for calculating the maxi- | affirmative.

gram is 15-43235 grains.

IMPROVEMENTS IN PARIS.

except in very small examples. As a rule, one more to-day, devised by Weiskopf. He first we prefer stretching iron plates from girder of all brushes the object (say roller) over with a

exemplified

to uplifted by Westminster and new Black- solution made by dissolving one part of nitrate of
friars bridges. Each arched rib of the struc-copper in fifty parts of hydrochloric acid; and
ture we are considering is of the double-tee afterwards with a second solution made of ten
shape, and has spandrils of lattice bars parts of nitrate of copper, ten parts of chloride of
strongly interlaced to insure the necessary copper, and eighty parts of hydrochloric acid.
amount of rigidity. Longitudinal beams This latter solution is applied very quickly with a
connect the main ribs, upon which are placed
The copper is deposited in a few
the arches of hollow brick. A considerable seconds, and the object must be rinsed immediately
saving of weight is effected by the use of in cold water and wiped with a soft cloth. By re-
hollow bricks, but yet the superstructure is peating the application of this second solution the
much heavier than it would be if constructed copper coating may be obtained of any desired
of sheet or corrugated iron.

WHETHER the cause be rivalry, neverther
the force of example, it
less, somewhat a remarkable coincidence that
the finest and handsomest capitals in Europe
should be undergoing a complete transforma-
tion at the same period of time. It is not
too much to assert that anyone who has been
absent five years from London, and should
not return until the expiration of another
similar term, would not recognize the locality
of some of our leading thoroughfares. Not
the least meritorious portion of the numerous
improvements in progress is the alteration
that has been carried out on the Surrey side The bridge over L'Oureine-street presents
of the Thames. This part of the metropolis but few details differing from those of its
is not so well known as that lying upon the neighbour. The span is a trifle less, and the
Middlesex shore, and, in fact, does not pos-rise also, but the breadth is the same. Both
sess, strictly speaking, any "fashionable bridges were tested previously to their being
quarter." The erection of a building so declared open for public traffic, and as the
superb as the future new hospital, and the test applied differs materially from that in
construction of spacious roads and footways, use among ourselves, it will be interesting to
and the clearing away of ancient wharves and describe it. As a rule, we do not test our
river premises, will tend materially to open bridges that are built for road traffic; they
up this hitherto neglected region. In all are supposed to be amply strong enough if
cities there are certain districts which may they only have a certain sectional area of
be said to be a complete terra incognita to the metal at the centre. This view is, however,
majority of the population, and the ins and not strictly correct, but as the margin of safety
outs of which are only revealed to a chosen is very great, there is no danger of a failure
few. Similarly to London, Paris has its taking place. The test was of a double nature,
Surrey side of the Thames. Those localities combining the action of a static as well as
lying upon the left bank of the Seine are but a dynamical load, the latter being successively
very imperfectly known to the great mass of applied upon various parts of the structure.
citizens, and the large tract existing between It consisted of a roller weighing thirty-two
the Observatory and the river, including the tons, which was used for crushing and con-
Bièvre valley, has been for ages occupied by solidating the roadway. Indicators placed
tanneries, and other manufactories of a con- under the ribs registered the deflection they
genial nature. Now, all these dilapidated underwent during the transit of the load, as
reliques of former days are in progress of well as the permanent set after its removal.
demolition. The "transformation of Paris" The former varied from 0.04 to 0.24 of an
demands their destruction and removal, in inch. In order to ascertain what the effect
order to make room for handsome avenues, would be by allowing the test load to remain
spacious boulevards, and wide thoroughfares. upon the bridge for a certain time, it was
One of the principal works of construction placed exactly over the rib that had evinced
in connection with the alterations, are the the greatest amount of deflection, and left in
two bridges which carry the Boulevard de that position for one night. The result was
Port Royal over the streets Pascal and a very slight increase in the permanent set,
L'Oureine. There is some similarity in the but the time of trial was too short to allow
manner in which the pedestrian traffic is pro- of any definite conclusion being arrived at.
vided for here and at our future Holborn From the works already executed by Joret
Viaduct bridge, although there are no side and Co., it was only to be expected that the
approaches for vehicles, owing to the com- bridges would be of excellent material and
paratively limited amount of space in the workmanship. Many of our readers pro-
vicinity of the structure. To enable pedes-bably remember that M. Joret erected the
trians to mount from the lower to the higher steel bridge at the Quai D'Orsay, which
level, there are four staircases built in the
masonry. The principle of the bridges con-
sists in the adoption of an iron superstructure
carried upon arches with spandrils of lattice-
work, and the erection was entrusted to
Joret and Co. M. Buffet, one of the staff
of engineers of "Les Ponts et Chaussées," was
charged with the designing and superintend-
ing of the bridges. That over Pascal-street
is at an angle of 82deg. 30min., and has a
clear span of 43ft., and a breadth of 125ft.
between parapets, and must present a some-
what peculiar appearance upon plan, since
it is three times as broad as it is long. This,
however anomalous it would seem in a rail-
way bridge, is not an uncommon event in
road and street bridges, the relative dimen-
sions being reversed in the two instances.

The Boulevard de Port Royal has a roadway

attracted so much attention during the Exhi-
bition of 1867. It is too early, however, at
present to pronounce upon the relative merits
of iron and steel for bridge building. Until
some greater progress is made towards the
production of a cheap homogeneous steel, its
high price will be an effectual bar to its
entering the lists with its rival with any
chance of success.

soft brush.

thickness. This process, the author says, is to be recommended for its simplicity, cheapness, and the durability of the copper layer. Our own experience with the coating of copper with acid solutions similar to this has shown us that unless the application be made very quickly indeed, the copper does not adhere firmly to the iron and is apt to blister and peel off. For coating rollers, therefore, Weil's or the old cyanide plan. When the pattern we should recommend an alkaline process-either is out of date, the Swiss convert the old roller into a new one by covering all parts of the roller, except the engraved pattern, with an insulating varnish, then immersing it in a bath, to fill up the pattern with freshly deposited copper. The roller is then ready to have a new pattern engraved upon it.

bronzes.

Weiskopf, whom we quoted above, gives a further process for communicating to objects of art coppered by his plan the appearance of antique For this purpose he brushes the articles ammoniac, one part oxalic acid, one part acetic over with a solution composed of four parts salacid, and thirty parts water. The application is to be repeated until the articles assume the desired colour.

Mr. Gore communicates to the "Philosophical Magazine" an excellent way of making charcoal crucibles, &c. He first shapes the articles out of wood, and he finds that lignum vitæ, kingwood, ebony, and beech answer best. After the vessel has been formed, the wood is carefully dried in a warm place. The articles are then enclosed in a copper tube retort having two exit tubes for the escape of gas. This retort is heated slowly at first, and finally for some time to bright redness, to completely carbonize the wooden vessel. It is necessary, Mr. Gore says, to turn the retort continually, and so distribute the heat, that none of the tarry matter evolved may condense upon the articles; otherwise, he tells us, their shape and dimensions may be curiously altered. The heating is to be continued until no more gas is evolved, and care must be taken not to heat too rapidly, or the article will fall to pieces. Charcoal made in this way from lignum vitæ is remarkably hard, and the texture is so close as to make it apparently quite impervious to liquids; even after immersion in the strongest hydrofluoric acid the surface had no acid taste. Rods made of this lignum vitæ charcoal conduct electricity admirably, and would probably, Mr. Gore says, answer well for pencils for the electric arc.

In the City article of the "Times" a few days ago, it was quoted from "Travers' Circular" that one of Wilde's magneto-electric machines had been

set up in a sugar refinery with the object of bleach

ing sugar by means of a powerful stream of electricity. The machine is no doubt employed to ozonize a large volume of air which is forced COVERIES AND THEIR PRACTICAL AP-ing agent. We hope this experiment will prove through the syrup, the ozone acting as the bleach

NOTES ON RECENT SCIENTIFIC DIS

PLICATIONS.

COPPERED IRON ROLLERS FOR CALICO PRINTERS—

NEW MODES OF COPPERING AND BRONZING IRON

METHOD FOR MAKING CHARCOAL CRUCIBLES, &c.—
ELECTRICITY AS A BLEACHING AGENT.

YALICO printers have a good deal of capital

The

46ft. in width, two avenues 30ft. wide, and lying idle, in the form of copper rollers. To
two footpaths measuring 9ft. 6in. in the clear, save much of this, the Swiss printers have been ex-
all of which are included in the width of the perimenting, and with complete success, with iron
new bridge. Arched girders, numbering rollers coated with copper of sufficient thickness to
sixteen in all, constitute the framework of the
allow of the pattern being engraved upon it.
structure, the span being 42-83ft., and the
rise 5.24ft. Transverse beams and ties brace copper must of course be in immediate contact
the main ribs together in a lateral and longi- with the iron, and not deposited on black-leaded
tudinal direction, while small cross girders varnish, as in Oury's process. The mode of coating
of the double-tee form support the brick adopted by the Swiss is said to be a secret; but
arches which carry the road and footways. there are several plans by which a thin layer of
This is a favourite system of construction
with our continental neighbours. The bridge copper can be obtained upon which as much metal
over La Place de l'Europe is built upon a as may be wished can be thrown down by the
similar principle. Our engineers are not ordinary electrotype process. We have published
much given to the adoption of brick arches, several modes of coppering iron already, and add

successful.

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. SECTION A.-MATHEMATICAL AND

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

EXTENT OF EVIDENCE OF CHANGE ON THE
MOON'S SURFACE.

BY MR. W. R. BIRT.

THE author remarked that the two opposite questions of fixity of, or change on, the moon's surface must be decided by observation and not assertion. With regard to evidence on the question of fixity, such evidence-resulting from observation and not including theoretical considerations-must, he said, conceive how the unalterable state of the surface of be exceedingly scanty. Indeed, it is difficult to our satellite can be determined by observation; for if, as has been asserted, "all changes on the moon's surface have ceased myriads of ages ago," we are certainly destitute of the records of the observation of the real state of that surface at so remote a period, and even if "fixity" of the more

minute details be really established at any one point angles at which rain fell during certain months,
by a long series of observations, it would be no and the effect thereof upon the indications of the
argument for its universal prevalence, since a state gauges. The results are that-1. There is no
of quiescence might be attained at very different month in the year in which a gauge whose mouth
epochs in different regions. The author next pro-is horizontal collects as much as one which is
ceeded to examine the question of change, and inclined and kept face to wind by a vane. 2. In
glanced at the attempts to perpetuate a knowledge summer rain falls nearly vertical, the average
of the moon's surface by means of maps, drawings, angle therewith being about 20deg.; in spring
and topographical descriptions, remarking that it and autumn about 45deg.; and in winter more
is by the study of details that a definite answer than 60deg. 3. The ratio of the fall on the
must be given. These details are numerous, em- ground to that at 25ft. above it bears a nearly con-
bracing mountains, valleys, plains, craters, rings stant relation to the angle of fall-for instance, in
apparently nearly filled, bright spots as mountain two months, when rain fell at a mean angle of
tops, and others less bright, but presenting pheno- 65deg. from the vertical, the 25ft. gauge collected
mena difficult of explanation, dark spots with 25 per cent. less than that on the ground, and on
bright rings or bounded by distinct lines separat- the other hand, in two months, when the mean
ing them from the surrounding surface. All such angle was 20deg., the upper and lower gauges
subjects must be carefully studied before a conclu- only differed by 5 per cent. 4. The relation of
sion can be drawn as to their unalterable stability these results to their cause wind was striking in
of their mutations. The means of obtaining evi- its accordance. 5. The necessity of all observers
dence on these points consists in the examination keeping the top of their gauges strictly level is
of delineations and topographical notices on the one brought out very clearly by the tables of results
hand, and comparing them with the moon by per- given. By these it is shown that in summer a tilt
sonal observation of the objects on the other. Mr. of even 1deg. will cause a difference of 0.2 per
Birt referred to a diagram, giving two aspects of cent. in the amount collected. It is not unfrequent
the same spots. One as given-lighter than some to find gauges two or three degrees from level,
surrounding objects-by three authorities, Lohr- which would give a total error of 5 per cent., if
mann, Beer, and Mädler and Schmidt; the other, they were always inclined towards the wind; but
as observed by himself at a recent date, in which as the errors are never intentional, it is probable
the spot is darker than all surrounding objects. In they neutralize one another; but it would be far
connection with these differences of colour, he put better for observers to be careful to keep the
the question, "Can we decide for change?" In orifices level, and so to avoid the error altogether.
reply, he pointed out one great disadvantage. Various proceedings at stations were recorded; and
namely, the uncertainty of the number of observa- then an account was given of the new stations
tions on which the earlier records rest, and showed established in the central and eastern portions of
the great importance, not only of increasing our the English lake district. In the district to which
own observations, but also of soliciting the aid of Dr. Miller confined his attention the fall averages
others, that there may be no want of confirmatory about 100 inches, and at one spot reaches 165
evidence to establish the certainty of what is re- inches; the usual influence of a range of hills or
corded. In the absence of confirmatory observa- mountains windward of a station is, if the station
tions, Mr. Birt considered that the evidence capable be close to the hill, to increase the fall, that is to
of being brought to bear on questions of change is say, ordinarily the maximum fall is on the N.E.
very limited, especially as former records are more slope of a hill, but the normal deposition having
or less open to be regarded as inexact drawings or been exceeded in consequence of the cooling and
inaccurate statements when they happen to differ condensing influence of the hill, there is so much
from the present observed appearances.
less vapour in the cloud when it passes onward
from the hill. Hence, at say five miles N.E. of a
given hill, the fall would be less than if the hill did
not exist. This being the case, it might naturally
have been thought that the enormous rainfall in
the valleys of Wastdale and Borrowdale would

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON LUMINOUS
METEORS.

BY MR. JAMES GLAISHER, F.R.S.

products and the phenomena of the material universe should form a large part of the education of its inhabitants seemed at last to have dawned on society generally. It was one of the opinions of the day that scientific was at least of equal value with classic lore, that it must be infused early and freely into the minds of even children, and that it must be recognized in Universities as an essential branch of a liberal education, sharing the honours and privileges heretofore too largely absorbed by Greek, Latin, and logic. Oxford-classical and mathematical Oxford the most conservative body, intellectually, in the kingdom, was now taking the lead in the physical education movement, and it could not be doubted that such an example would be followed by other Universities. A movement of this kind, based on rational, if somewhat utilitarian, considerations, was certain to make rapid progress with Englishmen, and they might take it for granted that science would soon be taught through the length and breadth of the land. Colonel Strange proposed the foundation of a national institution expressly for the practical advancement of scientific research apart from education-an institution for workers as distinguished from learners. Such an institution implied a building or buildings planned with a view to modern scientific requirements, of which the chief were ample space, absolute stability, and perfect command of light and temperature. It seemed indispensable that such an institution, being maintained at the public expense, should be as accessible as possible to the scientific public. The manufacturing public should also be permitted to participate in its advantages, and i should be open to any person to submit to the governors proposals for any glven research or experiments, and it would be for that body to decide whether the investigation should be undertaken. Due provision would have to be made for the prompt publication of results. Institutions such as those advocated would be of most important use as consultative bodies, to whom the State could with confidence resort for scientific counsel.

SECTION B.-CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
BY MR. A. R. CATTON, M.A.

WITH the catalogue of this report the committee had the satisfaction of pointing out the success of leave the district immediately N.E. thereof with him to the Association at the Nottingham meeting

the observations undertaken in the August meteoric shower of the present year (1868), to determine the heights and real distances of the meteors. The

results are given, and an appendix contained notices of the stonefalls in the present year, which have been made the subject of interesting discussions by astronomers on the Continent. The star showers of November last and of last month are

little or no rain. The observations of the last two
years have shown that this does not follow.

Professor Phillips and Mr. Symons have both
independently been investigating the relation be-
tween height above sea level and amount of rain-
fall, as indicated by both new and old stations in
Cumberland district. Professor Phillips has found
in the Scawfell group the maximum fall was at an
altitude of 1,463ft. Mr. Symons, by an entirely

THE author commenced by giving a brief resumé of the results described in the reports presented by in 1866, and at the Dundee meeting last year, and results and the manner in which they had been of the objections which had been raised as to those obviated. In consequence of these objections, and the admitted difficulty of the research, and in consequence of the liability to error therein, it was conmenced de novo, and that Dr. Anderson, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, was in

sidered desirable that the research should be com

also noticed. The atlas of star showers, of which a few charts were last year exhibited to the Asso-different method, had determined that the maxi-vited to aid the author with his advice and assistciation, has been completed, and thirty-five copies distributed to eminent astronomers. A new edition two methods have, therefore, led to very similar received his approval. Taking into consideration

mum was at an altitude of 1,000ft. to 1,500ft.; the

results.

THE NECESSITY FOR STATE INTERVENTION

BY COLONEL STRANGE.

of the atlas brought up to the present time was
now presented. In addition to the radiant points
first observed by Dr. Heis and Mr. Greg, a similar
list of radiant points of star showers in the southern TO SECURE THE PROGRESS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
hemisphere is published by Dr. Heis, from obser-
vations of stars recorded at Melbourne. A com- THE author stated that knowledge, of whatever
plete meteoric survey of the heavens, with a view
to determining the most obvious points of radiation,
is thus already terminated, and brought, at least
provisionally, to a satisfactory conclusion. The
meteoric shower of 1867 was next fully described.
In respect to the past August (1868) meteoric
showers, the report states that at Sunderland,
Durham, Mr. Blackmore saw one meteor on the
7th, one on the 8th, and thirty-five on the night of
the 9th. The 10th and 11th were cloudy. On the
9th, the meteors came very irregularly-they
seemed most frequent from 10.40 to 11.10 p.m.;
their average rate was about twenty-two per hour.
The radiant point was about R. A. 2hr. 45min.,
N. Dec. 53deg. Most of the bright ones had
trains.

kind, was promoted principally in three ways, viz., by teaching, by education, and by exhihition. Unless the young were instructed, unless the workers advanced beyond what they learnt when young, and unless the world was reminded of what had been done, and of what remained to be achieved, knowledge must languish. The provision, such as it was, which had been made in England to meet these three main requirements had grown up casually with the progress of society, and was not equally complete in all branches of knowledge. In literature, extensive provision was made for instruction in our private and public schools, and in our Universities, while the fine arts were less cared for. They formed as yet no avowed part of general education in England. Neither music, painting, nor sculpture was taught systematically in our schools, nor encouraged warmly in our Universities. The provision made in our ADOPTING the same arrangements as in former academies for its extension was meagre in the reports, it was stated that steady progress had extreme-from no fault, perhaps, of the professors been made with the extraction and classification of or the system, but chiefly from the fact that this published and unpublished records, and in the ex-requirement was provided almost wholly from amination of rain gauges. The records of the private, and, therefore, inadequate, resources. Art inclined and tipping funnelled gauges described in was better, if not perfectly, provided for; but that the report of 1866, and erected at Rotherham our pictures, statues, and music was seldom good under the superintendence of Mr. Chrimes, have was due to our imperfect means of teaching and of been discussed with some care. One of the prin- extension. The conviction long held by thinkers cipal results is the determination of the true and workers in science that a knowledge of the

REPORT OF THE RAINFALL COMMITTEE.
BY MR. G. J. SYMONS.

ance, and the results presented in this report had

the nature of the objections which had been made, it was considered to be of the greatest importance at the outset to try to obtain the products produced synthetically in the reaction, in quantities which formed a much higher percentage of the qualities of substances employed in the reaction. To this problem his past efforts have been directed, and they have been completely successful. Instead of only obtaining, as previously, seven grammes of organic sodium salts formed synthetically from 100 grammes sodium, he has obtained twenty-five times that amount, or from 100 grammes sodium he has now succeeded in obtaining 175 grammes of sodium salts of acids formed synthetically.

To give an account of the conditions necessary to this result, and of the experiments by which it is established, was the subject of this report. The author gave in great detail an account of the results of a large series of experiments which it would be impossible to render intelligible unless given at length, for which we have not space. He found that a larger amount of products was obtained by keeping a stream of carbonic acid constantly passing through the apparatus.

were:

His conclusions

1. That where a current of dry carbonic acid is kept constantly passing through absolute alcohol, which is in contact with sodium amalgam containing about 2 per cent of sodium for every 150 grammes of sodium used in the reaction, at least 175 grammes of sodium salts, formed synthetically, are produced, about 35 grammes of which are the sodium salts of volatile acids, and the remaining 140 grammes are the sodium salts of fixed acids. 2. That the volatile acids do not consist entirely

of formic acid, but contain at least one acid of higher molecular weight.

3. That the fixed acids are principally acids having a greater atomicity than basicity, and they were originally produced as sodium salts, in which both the basic and typical hydrogen of the acid are replaced by sodium.

The author deferred to a future report the full account of the examination of the nature of the products thus formed synthetically. The product of the reaction is of a very complex

character.

Professor Frankland drew the attention of the Section to the importance and great interest of synthetical investigations, such as those of which Mr. Catton had now given the preliminary report. Mr. Catton showed his judgment in bringing forward in his report only those results which he had conclusively established by experiment. He had obtained a great quantity of the crude synthetical product, and the great problem now remained of isolating and determining the precise nature of the substances of which it was composed. Should he succeed in solving this problem the result would be one of the most interesting discoveries in synthetical investigations. Mr. Catton had no doubt struck out a novel line of research in a class of investigations which, at the present time, prominently occupied the attention of chemists.

Mr. Perkin asked whether the result might not be due to the action of nascent hydrogen on ethylcarbonate of sodium.

CHEMICAL NATURE OF CAST IRON.

showing most conclusively that the greater the more recent, being deposited after a long interval
atomic weight of the bodies, the greater was the of denudation, and disposed with reference to the
luminosity of their flames when submitted to com-existing coast outline. The resemblance in the
bustion by the electric spark.
fauna and flora of the Mundesley freshwater de-
posit to that of the forest and laminated beds was
noticed, and the Mundesley peat and other thin
layers of similar matter in the Norfolk coast till,
were considered to be merely a recurrence of the
laminated beds at its base. The Thames Valley
deposits at Grays Thurrock might be contem-
poraneous with the Norfolk coast beds, as they ex-
hibit a contorted structure at their base.

THE report on the chemical nature of cast iron
by Dr. A Matthiessen (read by Dr. Russell) was
important, inasmuch as it stated that although Dr.
Matthiessen and Dr. Prug had made seventy
experiments in the production of pure metallic
iron from its various compounds, they had not
succeeded in obtaining any iron perfectly free from
sulphur. Dr. Matthiessen hoped, however, by
continuing his researches, yet to obtain a perfectly
pure sample of metallic iron.

In the course of the discussion which followed,
Mr. Sutton suggested that probably the presence
of sulphur in iron was only another instance of the
persistence of that element in the atmosphere, as
shown by the experiments of Mr. W. F. Barrett,
who first devised the method of detecting the
presence of sulphur upon the surfaces of bodies
exposed to the air by projecting upon them a flame
of hydrogen, a magnificent blue flame resulting
therefrom.

SECTION C.-GEOLOGY.
ORGANIC CONTENTS OF MINERAL VEINS.

BY MR. CHAS. MOORE, F.G.S.

REPORT ON BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS.
BY DR. P. M. DUNCAN.

THIS report consisted of notes and observations made upon the coral fauna described by Milne Edwards and Jules Haime, in the monograph published by the Palæontographical Society, of descriptions of new and unpublished species, of notices of species published by himself in 1867-68, and of examinations into the affinities of the forms and their geological positions. The fossil corals of the Crag, Brockenhurst beds, Eocene deposits, upper and lower white chalk strata, upper greensand and red chalk rock of Hunstanton, are considered, and also those of the Rhætic beds, and the great Liassic series. The fossil corals of the Lias have been published in two parts by the Palæontographical Society during the last twelve months, and this great fauna, with the exception of one species, is THE author stated that for some years he had new to Great Britain, and has been illustrated in Mr. Catton replied that he had made special been paying attention to the curious fact that most, 17 plates. The fossil corals of the red chalk of experiments in this direction, and found that if not all, our mineral veins contain organic re- Hunstanton have just been lithographed in one nothing was produced but formic acid, due no mains, and that he had found 115 species alone at plate, and those from the interesting tertiary dedoubt to the excess of carbonic acid dissolved in the the bottom of a lead mine on the Mendips, includ-posit at Brockenhurst have been already published alcohol. In reference to the remarks of the pre-ing not only fresh water but land shells, and that and illustrated in 1866. The report dwells fully sident, he wished it to be understood that he had it could be proved by their presence that the mine- upon these three new fauna. The species described made considerable progress in the separation of the rals belonged to the lias and not to the older rocks by MM. Milne Edwards and Jules Haime from the acids which he had formed synthetically, and he in the veins of which they were found. During strata whose corals are noticed here are 43 in numhad no doubt that he would be able to present a the past year he had examined 134 different ber. Notices are added of 115 species new to complete and final report on the subject to the samples from the mines of the north of England, Great Britain, 25 of which have been described in next meeting of the Association. in 80 of which he had obtained specimens. A the coral fauna of the Continent. The labour of more lengthened examination was needed before passing so many forms under review, and of superhe could arrive at precise conclusions as to the intending 26 plates published by the Palæontoage of some of the Yorkshire and Cumberland graphical Society, 2 plates in the " Philosophical mines, but as he had found some seeds-Fla- Translations," and 6 in the journal of the Geologimingites gracilis in one of them--which had hitherto cal Society, may, perhaps, be explanatory of the only been found in the coal measures, he concluded impossibility of concluding the report of the coral in this instance they must be at least as young as cretaceous fauna. The new species from the gault that period, as in the case of the Mendip mine, he have, however, been lithographed but not published, had under these peculiar circumstances found but those from the upper greensand and necomiase several genera of fresh water shells, including val- have not yet been drawn. There remains for a vata, in considerable abundance, from which he future report the description of the fossil strata of concluded a land area could not be far distant the gault, lower greensand, and of the Oolitic rocks. from the vein during their formation. These were The vast coral remains of the Paleozoic age have mixed with a marine fauna, including several not been alluded to in this report, and although genera of fishes, viz., petalodus, eteuoptychius, possessing the advantage of Mr. Thomson's valusqualoraia, hybodus, and acrodus, together with able skill in producing sections of carboniferous numerous species of brachiopoda, eutomostraca, corals, and also of investigating large series of &c., and for the first time a beautiful nummuline, Devonian and Silurian groups, it could only be aslike species of foraminifera, together with the serted that before any satisfactory communication genera Nodosaria, Cristellaria, Dentalina, and on these early zoantharia can be written much Rotalina. The author concluded by saying the time must be occupied, and much labour be underoperation for the discovery of these remains was gone. very difficult, owing to the minute examination needed, and to the generally intractable character of the vein stuff yielding them.

paper on

COMBUSTION UNDER PRESSURE.
BY PROFESSOR FRANKLAND.

PROFESSOR FRANKLAND read a very interesting
combustion under pressure, illustrated
by experiments. He commenced by stating that
the origin of the paper now communicated arose
from observing the way in which candles burned
at the top of Mont Blanc, and the law deduced
therefrom was that the diminution of illuminating
power was exactly in proportion to the diminution
of atmospheric pressure. The Professor stated
that some years ago, while he was on the summit
of Mont Blanc at night, he was struck with the
want of illumination in the candles burnt in the
tent in which they stopped for the night. He had
observed similar results in other elevated regions.
The diminution of the illuminating power was in
all probability due to the reduction of atmospheric
pressure. If they took an ordinary gas flame, and
placed a piece of paper with writing on it against
the flame, looking steadily through it, they would
be able to read the writing as well, or nearly as
well, as if the flame was not thero at all.

The commonly received opinion was that they must have incandescent solid or liquid substances in order to produce a white light in gaseous flames. In following out this subject, he had been brought into contact with a number of flames which emitted a considerable amount of light, but which did not contain any solid matter whatever. One was metallic arsenic, burnt with oxygen gas; it emitted an intense and brilliant white light. Bi-sulphide of carbon also emitted a very intense light-indeed, so intense that it had been employed to take instantaneous photographs. This was produced without the possibility of a solid or liquid matter existing in the flame while the light was being evolved. If oxygen and hydrogen were enclosed in a soap bubble and exploded, or other light envelope, there was scarcely any light produced; but if they were enclosed in a strong vessel and exploded by means of an electric spark, at the moment of their combustion the light would have an increased luminosity to the extent of ten times above that in the previous case. Ignited gas emitted light in proportion to its density. The increase of luminosity in flames, the Professor considered to be due to the presence of dense hydrocarbon vapours. One of the most interesting experiments shown was that of sending an electric spark first through air under ordinary pressure, and then through air under doubled pressure. The result was, that the light of the spark due to combustion of the air was very much increased. The spark was sent also through many other gaseous and vapourized substances,

SEQUENCE OF THE DEPOSITS IN NORFOLK AND
SUFFOLK ABOVE THE RED CRAG.

BY MR. MAW.

SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. ZOOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE GAME LAWS.

BY MR. A. NEWTON.

MR. NEWTON argued that great advantage had arisen from the attention of the public having been MR. MAW considered that the whole of the beds abovo called to the question. The most effectual protecthe oblique ferruginous red crag in the well-known tion to animals was that afforded by public opinion. Chillesford Crag Pit pertained to the Chillesford A most striking instance of its influence was that clay series. The Fluvio Marine or lower Norwich presented by the fox. Not much more than a Crag was here wanting, but he disagreed with century ago the British farmer was only induced those who considered the obliquely bedded ferru- to permit the galloping of horses and hounds over ginous red crag as the equivalent of the Norwich his corn by the reflection that they were doing him crag, for in its occurrence at Thorpe, in Suffolk, a great service in ridding him of a pestilent mawithin three and a-half miles of Chillesford, it rauder, and he would hear with grim satisfaction shows no approach in either its physical or pala-that the scourge of his wife's henroost had been ontological features to the red crag. The Chilles-run into, or he would willingly at a vestry meeting ford beds extend transgressively over the coraline, pass the churchwardens' accounts giving awards red, and fluvio marine crags, and do not appear for the destruction of a vixen and her cubs among to pass upwards in conformable succession from any other so-called vermin. Now-a-days the British of the subjacent beds. The upper part of the farmer was generally in the first flight of the horseChillesford beds probably graduate into the drift men, and the fox had no friend so staunch. A underlying the boulder clay of high Suffolk: these similar change with regard to other wild animals were considered older than the coast beds of was most desirable. The public should feel that Cromer, and appear to partake of the general de- they had an interest in the production of wild nudation contour of the country, having been ex-animals, especially during the season of reproductensively denuded in the excavation of valleys that tion. The decrease of these animals, however, are cut deeply through them into the chalk and was often attributed to secondary causes, and not other formations. The coast beds, including the to direct slaughter. Man had no great spite against forest bed of Cromer (with which the author the bustard or the great copper-fly, but both had identified the other forest beds along the S.E. and been extirpated within living memory, the latter S. coasts), the laminated beds and the overlying probably owing to the drainage of the fens. Both, boulder till and contorted drift were considered however, might possibly have been preserved by a