the ramparts of the city formerly stood, and are in part intended to replace older less convenient structures, such as the new Royal Library, the new Polytechnic School, the new Mineralogical Museum, and the new Town Hall, an extensive and imposing edifice ornamented with a tower, of which the spire, when finished, will be the tallest in the North of Europe-about 330 feet. The Glyptothek was built by the State and the municipality, to accommodate a considerable collection of modern objects of art, the gift of a wealthy citizen, M. Jacobsen, who has spent very large sums upon objects of national interest. The new Museum of Industrial Art is an outcome of the movement for applying art to the commoner objects of industry. The old Royal Picture Gallery and the Collection of Engravings, which formerly occupied a portion of the upper storey of the palace of Christiansborg, are now located in the new State Museum of Art, which is situated in a corner of the Östre Anlæg, a fine public garden formed out of a portion of the old ramparts. A similar garden, but smaller, is the so-called Örstedspark. Besides these new Museum buildings, another is in contemplation, destined to receive the Museums of Northern Antiquities, the Ethnographic Museum, and some others, which are now very inconveniently housed in the so-called Prindseus Palais; but this new National Museum is to be built near the latter palace, and in part to replace it. Two private collections must also be mentioned, which, though the property of private persons, are accessible to the public. One of them is the New Glyptothek, a collection of antique sculptures belonging to M. Jacobsen, and preserved at his private residence. It contains a number of important specimens, and is one of the largest, if not the largest private collection of its kind out of Italy. The other is styled Dansk Folke-museum, and illustrates the domestic life of the Danish nation, particularly the peasantry, since 1600, by means of specimens of furniture, utensils, costumes, &c. The Frederik or Marble Church, the erection of which was begun in 1749 but discontinued in 1770, remained a ruin until 1874, when it was purchased by a wealthy banker, M. Tietgen, at whose expense the work was recommenced. The edifice was not carried up to the height originally intended, but the magnificent dome, which reminds one of the finest examples in Italy, is conspicuous far and wide. The diameter is only a few feet less than that of St Peter's in Rome. As the church now stands it is one of the principal works of the architect, F. Meldahl.

Not only is Copenhagen the political capital, but it is also the centre of the higher culture of the nation. It is the seat of the university, which has 80 professors and lecturers, with an average number of about 1900 students, and is fully equipped with the requisite scientific apparatus, such as a library, observatory, botanical garden, museums for natural history, and other collections, laboratories, &c. The Royal Library is one of the largest institutions of its kind. The learned societies comprise the Royal Society of Sciences, the Society of Northern Antiquaries, and numerous others. Technical instruction is provided by the Polytechnic School, which is a State institution; the School of the Technical Society, which, though a private foundation, enjoys public subvention; and also by the High School of Agriculture, Veterinary Art, and Forestry, with 30 professors and lecturers. The schools which prepare for the university, &c., are nearly all private, but are all under the control of the State. Elementary instruction is mostly provided by the communal schools, of which there are thirty within the area of the municipality. Twenty of these are free; ten, in which a somewhat fuller education is given, exact fees. The expense incurred by the municipality for schools, over and above the amount of the school fees, was in 1897, £110,000. The number of children in the area

mentioned was 49,337, of whom 37,248 received instruction in the communal schools.

Copenhagen is by far the most important commercial town in Denmark, and has fully shared the steady and considerable increase in the trade of the country during the last thirty years. According to an estimate furnished by the director of the Statistical Bureau of Denmark, the annual value of the exports by sea may be taken at 168 million crowns, or £9,500,000; that of the imports at 295 million crowns, or £16,400,000. The trading capabilities have been much increased by the construction of the new Free Port, at the northern extremity of the town, well supplied with warehouses and other conveniences. It is connected with the main railway station by means of a new circular railway, while a short branch connects it with the ordinary custom-house quay. Advantage has been taken of the facilities afforded by the free port to establish a more perfect steam communication with Sweden particularly in order to accommodate through traffic. Within a short distance of the free port is the station of the new Eastern Railway, which runs along the shore of the Sound, connecting Copenhagen with Elsinore by a direct line. At the end of 1899, 284 sailing vessels above four tons, with an aggregate tonnage of 18,145 tons, belonged to Copenhagen, while the steamers numbered 292, with a collective tonnage of 219,055 tons. In 1899, 9200 clearances inwards were effected by sailing vessels, 9177 by steamers. Of the former, 4391 were Danish vessels, 4181 Swedish, only 14 English. Of the steamers, 7057 were Danish, 338 were English. Besides these, a limited number of passing vessels touched the port. The inward-bound cargoes amounted to 1,580,002 tons, of which 955,557 were carried in Danish bottoms. The cargoes which arrived from foreign ports amounted to 1,366,637 tons, of which 750,257 tons were in Danish bottoms. The total of the outward-bound cargoes was 720,671 tons, of which 573,233 were carried in Danish bottoms; of this total, 391,052 were destined for foreign ports, of which 248,945 were in Danish bottoms. The total of the cargoes exchanged between Copenhagen and other Danish ports was 542,984 tons, of which but a very small proportion was carried by foreign vessels. The total of exports and imports by sea was 2,300,670 tons, of which 1,895,559 tons were carried by steamers. Copenhagen is not an industrial town. The manufactures carried on are mostly only such as exist in every large town, and the export of manufactured goods is inconsiderable. The only very large establishment is one for the construction of iron steamers, engines, &c., but some factories have been erected within the area of the free port for the purpose of working up imported raw materials duty free. (c. A. G.)

Coppée, Francis Edouard Joachim (known as François) (1842-), French poet and novelist, was born in Paris, 12th January 1842. His father held a small post in the Civil Service, and he owed much to the care of an admirable mother. After passing through the Lycée Saint-Louis, he became a clerk in the Ministry of War, and soon sprang into public favour as a poet of the young "Parnassian" school. His first verses date from 1864. They were republished with others in 1866 in a collected form (Le Reliquaire), followed (1867) by the successful Intimités and Poèmes Modernes (1867–69). In the latter year his first play, Le Passant, was received with marked approval at the Odéon Theatre, and later Fais ce que dois and Les Bijoux de la Délivrance, short metrical dramas inspired by the war, were warmly applauded. After filling a post in the Library of the Senate, M. Coppée was chosen in 1878 as archivist of the Comédie-Française, an office which he held till 1884.

In

cent. of sulphur. The ore is under better control than is possible with the continuous feed and discharge, and when sufficiently roasted can be passed red-hot to the reverberatory furnace. These advantages compensate for the wear and tear and the cost of moving the heavy dead-weight. The M'Dougall furnace is turret-shaped, and consists of a series of circular hearths, on which the ore is agitated by rakes attached to revolving arms and made to fall from hearth to hearth. It has been modified by Herreshoff, who uses a large hollow revolving central shaft cooled by a current of air. The shaft is provided with sockets, into which movable arms with their rakes are readily dropped. The Peter Spence type of calcining furnace has been followed in a large number of inventions. In some the rakes are attached to rigid frames, with a reciprocating motion, in others to cross-bars moved by revolving chains. Some of these furnaces are straight, others circular. Some have only one hearth, others three. This and the previous type of furnace, owing to their large capacity, are at present in greatest favour. The M'Dougall-Herreshoff, working on ores of over 30 per cent. of sulphur, requires no fuel; but in furnaces of the Spence-O'Hara type fuel must be used, excess of air enters through the slotted sides and the hinged doors which open and shut frequently to permit of the passage of the rakes. The consumption of fuel, however, does not exceed 1 of coal to 10 of ore. The quantity of ore which these large furnaces, with a hearth area as great as 2000 feet and over, will roast varies from 40 to 60 tons a day. Shaft calcining furnaces like the Gerstenhoffer, Hasenclaver, and others designed for burning pyrites fines have not found favour in modern copper works. Kilns and stalls roast so small a quantity that they would cover too much ground and involve too much handling.

as an

The fusion of ores in reverberatory and cupola furnaces. -After the ore has been partially calcined, it is smelted to extract its earthy matter and to concentrate the copper with part of its iron and sulphur into a matte. In reverberatory furnaces it is smelted by fuel in a fireplace, separate from the ore, and in cupolas the fuel, generally coke, is in direct contact with the ore. When Swansea was the centre of the copper-smelting industry in Europe, many varieties of ores from different mines were smelted in the same furnaces, and the Welsh reverberatory furnaces were used. To-day more than eight-tenths of the copper ores of the world are reduced to impure copper bars or to fine copper at the mines; and where the character of the ore permits, the cupola furnace is found more economical in both fuel and labour than the reverberatory.

The Welsh method, with its seven or eight operations, finds adherents only in Wales and Chile. In America the usual method is to roast ores or concentrates so that the matte yielded by either the reverberatory or cupola furnace will run from 45 to 50 per cent. in copper, and then to transfer to the Bessemer converter, which blows it up to 99 per cent. In Butte, Montana, reverberatories have in the past been preferred to cupola furnaces, as the charge has consisted mainly of fine roasted concentrates; but even there the cupola is gaining ground. To smelt Butte ores there are about 75 reverberatories, but the number will be reduced by the replacement of small by large furnaces, heated by gas instead of solid fuel. At the Boston and Montana works tilting reverberatories, modelled after open hearth steel furnaces, were first erected; but they were found to possess objectionable features. Now both these and the egg-shaped reverberatories are being abandoned for furnaces as long as 43 feet 6 inches from bridge to bridge and of a width of 15 feet 9 inches, heated by gas, with regenerative checker work at each end, and fed with ore or concentrates, red-hot from the calciners, through a line of hoppers suspended above the roof. Furnaces of this

size smelt 200 tons of charge a day. But even when the old type of reverberatory is preferred, as at the Argo works, Colorado, where rich gold- and silver-bearing copper matte is made, the growth of the furnace in size has been steady. Richard Pearce's reverberatories in 1878 had an area of hearth of 15 feet by 9 feet 8 inches, and smelted 12 tons of cold charge daily, with a consumption of 1 ton of coal to 2.4 tons of ore. His present furnaces are 35 feet by 16 feet, and smelt 50 tons daily of hot ore, with the consumption of 1 ton of coal to 3.7 tons of ore.

The home of cupola smelting was Germany, where it has never ceased to make steady progress. In Mansfeld brick cupola furnaces are without a rival in size, equipment, and performance. They are round stacks, designed on the model of iron blast furnaces, 29 feet high, fed mechanically, and provided with stoves to heat the blast by the furnace gases. The low percentage of sulphur in the roasted ore is little more than enough to produce a matte of 40 to 45 per cent., and therefore the escaping gases are better fitted than those of most copper cupola furnaces for burning in a stove. But as the slag carries on an average 46 per cent. of silica, it is only through the utmost skill that it can be made to run as low on an average as 0.3 per cent. in copper oxide. As the matte contains on an average 0-2 per cent. of silver, it is still treated by the Ziervogel wet method of extraction, the management dreading the loss which might occur in the Bessemer process of concentration, applied as preliminary to electrolytic separation. Blast furnaces of large size, built of brick, have of late years treated the richest and more silicious ores of Rio Tinto, and at present the Rio Tinto Company is introducing converters at the mine. This method of extraction contrasts favourably in time with the leaching process, which is so slow that over 10,000,000 tons of ore are always under treatment on the immense leaching floors of the company's works in Spain. In the United States the cupola has undergone a radical modification in being built of water-jacketed sections. The first water-jacketed cupola which came into general use was a circular inverted cone, with a slight taper, of 36 inches' diameter at the tuyeres, and composed of an outer and an inner metal shell, between which water circulated. As greater size has been demanded, oval and rectangular furnaces as large as 180 inches by 56 inches at the tuyeres have been built in sections of cast or sheet iron or steel. A single section can be removed and replaced without entirely emptying the stack, as a shell of congealed slag always coats the inner surface of the jacket. The largest furnaces are those of the Boston and Montana Company at Great Falls, Montana, which have put through 500 tons of charge daily, pouring their melted slag and matte into large wells of 10 feet in diameter. A combined brick- and water-cooled furnace was first used by the Oxford Copper Company, and has been adopted by the Iron Mountain Company at Kerwick, Cal., for matte concentration. In it the cooling is effected by water pipes, interposed horizontally between the layers of bricks. The Mt. Lyell smelting works in Tasmania, which are of special interest, will be referred to later.

Concentrating matte to copper in the Bessemer converter. -As soon as the pneumatic method of decarburizing pig iron was accepted as practicable, experiments were made with a view to Bessemerizing copper ores and mattes. One of the earliest and most exhaustive series of experiments was made on Rio Tinto ores at the John Brown works by Mr John Holloway, with the ambitious aim of both smelting the ore and concentrating the matte in the same furnace, by the heat evolved through the oxidation of their sulphur and iron. their sulphur and iron. Experiments along the same lines were made by Francis Bawden at Rio Tinto and Claude Vautin in Australia. Claude Vautin in Australia. The difficulty of effecting.

These are usually suspended in slate vats, owing to the higher voltage used. In the multiple system the anodes are generally cast plates of from 1 inch to 1 inches in thickness, while in the series system they must be rolled sheets, usually inch thick. The multiple system anodes are sometimes cast directly from the blister furnace or the converter, but they are smoother, more compact, and make less scrap if roughly refined. At the Anaconda works the Bessemer copper is poured into a revolving cylindrical refinery, where it is poled, and thence poured into large ladles mechanically handled, which hold the measured weight of an anode. At other works similar ladles capable of holding 150 b are moved by overhead trolleys. At the Baltimore works Walker's travelling tables present the moulds in rotation to the pouring ladle. The old method of slow hand-ladling has been discarded in the United States works, and the refining

furnace, whether for making anodes or casting the cathodes, has been enlarged to a capacity of from 80,000 ₺ to 120,000 to a charge. The electrolyte is invariit ably an acidulated solution of cupric sulphate. The current density seldom if ever exceeds 18 ampères to the square foot, and it can be economically raised to that point only when a high temperature and rapid circulation of the electrolyte is maintained. In some rare instances where water power is in excess of requirements, the electrolyte is heated by raising the resistance and by forcing the current through small conductors. With an 18-ampère current, anodes of 1 inch thickness are dissolved in 15 days, and therefore a plant of given size to-day, using a current of high density, turns out at least three times more copper than formerly, when a current density of 6 ampères per square foot was deemed the highest safe maximum limit. The accumulation of dangerous quantities of impurities in the electrolyte is corrected in most works by withdrawing at intervals a given proportion of the whole, recovering its valuable contents and replacing it by pure electrolyte. The metals which it is the aim of most works to recover from copper anodes are copper, gold, and silver. The former is deposited on the cathode, while the precious metals separate and collect as slime, with their valuable or valueless ingredients, in the bottom of the vat, or as a coating on the anodes. Copper is invariably used as the conductor, and almost every works adopts different methods of attaching the electrodes to the permanent conductors.

The only published statement of the cost of refining copper on a large scale is that given in the report of the Anaconda Company, which turns out from its works in Anaconda about 80,000,000 lb of copper annually. The total cost, including taxes but not interest on plant, was in 1897-98, & cent per pound. This is in excess of the cost on the Atlantic seaboard and in Europe, where fuel and labour are both cheaper. Only electrolytic copper, together with that from Lake Superior, has sufficient purity and conductivity to be used for electrical purposes. It enters the market as cathodes, which are the rough plates, as withdrawn from the tanks, or cast into ingots, wire bars, and cakes. The conductivity of the cathodes is higher than that of the copper cast from them. Copper can be electrolytically deposited on irregular moulds, or as tubes on revolving mandrils. To ensure density, where this is done, agate burnishers travel over the surface of the tube during deposition, as in the Elmore process. Modern methods in copper smelting have therefore effected enormous economy in time, space, and labour. To-day with pyritic smelting a sulphuretted copper ore, fed into a cupola in the morning, can be passed directly to the converter, blown up to metal, and shipped as 99 per cent. bars by evening-an operation which formerly, with heap roasting of the ore and repeated roasting of the

mattes in stalls, would have occupied not less than four months. A large furnace and a Bessemer converter, the pair capable of making a million pounds of copper a month from a low-grade sulphuretted ore, will not occupy a space of more than 25 feet by 100 feet; and whereas, in making metallic copper out of a low-grade sulphuretted ore, one day's labour used to be expended on every ton of ore treated, to-day one day's labour will carry at least four tons of ore through the different mechanical and metallurgical processes necessary to reduce them to metal. (J. Ds.)

Coppermine, a river of Mackenzie district, Canada, about 475 miles long, taking its rise in a lake in approximately 110° 20′ W. long. and 65° 50′ N. lat., and Gulf in the Arctic Ocean. flowing south and then north-westward to Coronation in 1771, and was explored from Point Lake to the sea It was discovered by Hearne by Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin in 1821.

History.

Coptic Church.-Racially the Copts are descendants of the ancient Egyptians, the name Egypt meaning "land of the Gypt," as the Copts are to this day called in Arabic. By the Coptic church, therefore, is meant the native church of Egypt or church of Alexandria. Its founder was St Mark, after whom was called the cathedral, which survived the Arab conquest. From St Mark the succession has been maintained to the present time, but not unbroken. Up to the 5th century the church of Alexandria played a part in the Christian world scarcely second to that of Rome : the names of Origen, Athanasius, and Cyril bear witness to her greatness. But in the time of Dioscorus, 25th patriarch, the church, always fond of speculation, was rent asunder by the controversy concerning the single or twofold nature of our Lord, as stated by Eutyches. The Eutychian doctrine, approved by the council of Ephesus, was condemned by that of Chalcedon in 451. But to this decision, though given by 636 bishops, the Copts refused assent a refusal which profoundly affected both the religious and the political history of their country. From that moment they were treated as heretics. The emperor appointed a new bishop of Alexandria, whose adherents the Copts styled Melkites or Imperialists, while the Copts were called Monophysites and Jacobites. The court party and the native party each maintained its own line of patriarchs, and each treated the other with bitter hostility. For nearly two centuries strife and persecution continued. The well-meant ecthesis of Heraclius was a failure and was followed by repression, till in 640 the Copts found their opportunity in the Saracen invasion. The fall of the Byzantine empire meant the fall of the Byzantine church, and after some resistance the Copts accepted a change of masters, which gave them religious freedom. The orthodox or Melkite party, consisting mostly of Byzantine Greeks, was swept away, and the double succession of patriarchs practically ceased. True, even in 1901 there was an orthodox patriarch of Alexandria living in Cairo, but he had only a few Greeks for followers, and scarcely a nominal succession has been maintained. But the Coptic succession has been continuous and real.

Hierarchy.

"The most holy Pope and patriarch of the great city of Alexandria and of all the land of Egypt, of Jerusalem the holy city, of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Pentapolis, and all the preaching of St Mark," as he is still called, had originally jurisdiction over all the places named. Jurisdiction over Abyssinia remains, but from Nubia and Pentapolis Christianity has disappeared. The ancient rule is that no bishop is eligible for the patriarchate. The requirement of a period of desert life has so far prevailed that no one but a monk from one of the desert monasteries is now qualified. This rule, harmless perhaps