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of directing the movements of distant armies from the seat of government, though those armies were under able generals. This naturally caused great dissatisfaction, and more than once resulted in irreparable disaster. Only two instances need be cited. In the winter of 1861-62 General Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson was in command of the Valley forces. He planned and executed a brilliant winter attack on Romney in Hampshire county, occupied by the Federals, and during his march destroyed a dam on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, an important feeder to Washington. The position gained was very important in the defence of the Valley of Virginia. General Loring, with a part of the command, was left at Romney to hold the advantages gained. But he communicated with the War Department, and requested to be allowed to retire, on the plea that he might be cut off, although Jackson was within supporting distance. Thereupon, the administration, without consultation with General Jackson, ordered Loring's withdrawal, which resulted in a serious disadvantage in the defence of the Valley. General Jackson at once tendered his resignation, and it was with the greatest difficulty that the Governor of Virginia, with something like an apology from the War Department, was able to retain for the Confederacy the services of this great military genius. In 1864 General Joseph E. Johnston, in command of the army of Tennessee, was faced by General Sherman with nearly double his force. Johnston eluded Sherman's efforts to outflank him, and in a series of engagements, inflicting great loss, drew him some hundreds of miles from his base. He then urged Mr Davis to send a strong body of cavalry to the rear of Sherman and destroy his line of supplies. This Mr Davis declined to do, but instead insisted on Johnston's stopping the advance of his opponent. General Sherman commanded the best of the Federal troops, and Johnston, having reached Atlanta and having prepared to defend it on his own chosen ground, declined to say what his future movements might be, as they were dependent on the fortunes of war. Whereupon Mr Davis relieved him and placed in command General J. B. Hood, a greatly inferior soldier, who, in a series of wild assaults on Sherman, soon shattered the magnificent army which Johnston had led with such ability.

The defeats of Hood hastened the fate of the Confederacy. During the winter of 1864-65 the resources of the Government showed such exhaustion that it was apparent that the end would come with the opening of the Spring campaign. This was clearly stated in the reports of the Heads of Departments and of General Lee. President Davis, however, acted as if he was assured of ultimate success. He sent Duncan F. Kenner as special commissioner to the courts of England and France to obtain recognition of the Confederacy on condition of the abolition of slavery. When a conference was held in Hampton Roads on 3rd February 1865 between President Lincoln and Secretary Seward on the one side, and A. H. Stevens, R. M. T. Hunter, and Judge James A. Campbell, representing President Davis, on the other, he instructed his representatives to insist on the recognition of the Confederacy as a condition to any arrangement for the termination of the war. This defeated the object of the conference, and deprived the South of terms which would have been more beneficial than those imposed by the conqueror when the end came a few weeks later. The last days of the Confederate Congress were spent in recriminations between that body and President Davis, and the popularity with which he commenced his administration had almost entirely vanished.

After the surrender of the armies of Lee and Johnston in April 1865, President Davis attempted to make his way

through Georgia across the Mississippi, in the vain hope of continuing the war with the forces of Generals Smith and Magruder. He was taken prisoner by Federal troops before he reached the river, and was brought back to Old Point, Virginia, that he might be confined in prison at Fortress Monroe. His prison was a casemate under a damp parapet, in which a light was kept constantly burning, and sentinels paced backwards and forwards continually. He was heavily chained, and his coarse food was served in filthy vessels. He entered the prison a feeble man, and such treatment soon brought him to death's door. Dr Craven, the Federal surgeon who attended him, by earnest pleas had his treatment changed and saved his life. Persistent efforts were made to connect him with the assassination of President Lincoln and with the harsh treatment of prisoners at Andersonville, but without avail. Two indictments were found against him for treason, and for several years he was denied trial or bail. Such cruel treatment aroused the sympathy of the Southern people, who regarded him as a martyr to their cause, and in a great measure restored him to that place in their esteem which by his blunders he had lost. It also aroused a general feeling in the North, and when finally he was admitted to bail, Horace Greely, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Gerrett Smith, and others in that section who had been his political opponents, became his sureties. Charles O'Conor, a leader of the New York Bar, volunteered to act as his counsel. With him was associated Robert Ould of Richmond, a lawyer of great ability. They moved to quash the indictment on which he was brought to trial. Chief Justice Chase and Judge Underwood constituted the court, which was divided, the Chief Justice voting to sustain the motion and Underwood to overrule it. The matter was thereupon certified to the Supreme Court of the United States, and no decision of which there is record was ever announced by that high tribunal. Meanwhile the administration dismissed the prosecution and discharged the accused. The health of Mr Davis was greatly injured by the harsh treatment inflicted on him while at Fortress Monroe, a harrowing account of which is given by the Federal surgeon Dr Craven in his Prison Life of Jefferson Davis. It was some years before he was sufficiently recovered to write his Rise and Fall of the Confederate States of America. In this volume he attempted to vindicate his administration, and in so doing he attacked the records of those generals he disliked. He died on 6th December 1889 at New Orleans, leaving a widow and two daughters-Margaret, who married J. A. Hayes, and Varina, better known as "Winnie" Davis, the "daughter of the Confederacy," who died unmarried in 1899.

The life of Jefferson Davis has been written several times. The most prominent of these publications are those by J. William Jones, D.D., and by Mrs Varina Davis, his widow. But his life is so prominently identified with the struggle between the States, that every history of that great contest must present him in the foreground. (W. W. H*.)

Dawlish, a seaside resort in the Ashburton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 11 miles south by east of Exeter by rail. A masonic hall was built in 1890. A dispensary was established in 1885, and an infirmary in 1896. The cottage hospital, founded in 1871, was removed to other premises in 1880. The area of the civil parish is 5370 acres. The population in 1881 was 4595, and in 1891 it was 4925. The area of the urban district is 1500 acres. The population in 1881 was 3977; in 1901, 4003.

Dawson, Sir John William (1820-1899), Canadian man of science, was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, on 30th October 1820. Of Scottish descent, he went to Edinburgh to complete his education, and graduated at

that university in 1842. Returning to Canada he carried out some geological explorations under the direction of Sir Charles Lyell, and was afterwards appointed superintendent of education for Nova Scotia, a position in which he was responsible for important reforms in the educational arrangements of the province. From 1855 to 1893 he was principal of M'Gill University, which prospered under his fostering care and attained a reputation that was a good deal more than local. When the Royal Society of Canada was constituted he was the first to occupy the presidential chair, and he also acted as president of the British Association at its meeting at Birmingham in 1866, and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Sir William Dawson's name is especially associated with the Eozoon Canadense, which in 1865 he described as an organism existing in a fossil state in the Laurentian rocks, but his views on the subject were far from commanding general assent. Besides many memoirs published in the Transactions of various learned societies, he was the author of numerous popular books on geological subjects. In these he maintained a distinctly theological attitude, declining to admit the descent or evolution of man from brute ancestors, and holding that the human species only made its appearance on this earth within quite recent times. He died on 20th November 1899. His son, GEORGE MERCER DAWSON (1849-1901), was born at Pictou on 1st August 1849, and received his education at M'Gill University and the Royal School of Mines, London, where he had a brilliant career. In 1873 he was appointed geologist and naturalist to the North American Boundary Commission, and two years later he joined the staff of the Geological Survey of Canada, of which he became assistant director in 1883, and director-general in 1895. He was in charge of the Canadian Government's Yukon Expedition in 1887, and as one of H.M. Bering Sea Commissioners spent the summer of 1891 investigating the facts of the

seal fisheries on the northern coasts of Asia and America. For his services there, and at the subsequent arbitration in Paris, he was made a C.M.G. He died on 2nd March 1901. He was the author of many scientific papers and reports, especially on the surface geology and glacial phenomena of the northern parts of America, and he was largely responsible for the Canadian articles in this Supplement.

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Dax, chief town of arrondissement, in the department of Landes, France, 35 miles west-south-west of Montde-Marsan, with station on railway from Bordeaux to Bayonne. It is an important market for resinous substances, cattle, mules, and horses, and has considerable mercantile interchange with Spain. In the middle of the town there is a hot sulphur spring of a temperature of 140° Fahr.; and the place is consequently frequented by visitors for the sake of the baths. An important new bathing establishment, beautifully situated on the site of the old castle and near the Adour, was opened by the President of the Republic in 1891. In the same year a monument to the engineer Borda (d. 1799) was unveiled. Population (1881), 8359; (1891), 8403; (1896), 8307, (comm.) 9836; (1901), 10,329.

Dayton, a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the south bank of the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and adjoining Bellevue and Newport, Ky., in the northern part of the state. Population (1890), 4264; (1900), 6104, of whom 655 were foreign-born and 63 negroes.

Dayton, capital of Montgomery county, Ohio, U.S.A., in 39° 44′ N. lat. and 84° 08′ W. long., on the Great Miami river, which here is not navigable, at an altitude of 737 feet. The site is level, and the streets

broad, with a fairly regular plan, and paved with gravel. It is supplied with water by the Holly pumping system, the works being owned by the city. Dayton is a commercial city of importance, being on the Miami and Erie Canal, and on ten lines of railway, belonging to five railway companies, and radiating in all directions. Its manufactures are large and varied. In 1890 the invested capital was $13,470,000, employing over 12,000 hands. The product was valued at $22,446,572. The more prominent of the products were agricultural implements, flour, and iron and steel goods. The assessed valuation of real and personal property, on a basis of about 55 per cent. of the full value, was, in 1899, $42,565,200, the net debt of the municipality, $3,562,943, and the rate of taxation, $25.60 per $1000. The city had a slow growth between 1870 and 1880, but from then until 1900 it increased rapidly, owing to the development of manufactures and trade. Population (1880), 38,678; (1890), 61,220; (1900), 85,333, of whom 10,053 were foreign-born and 3387 negroes. The death-rate in 1900 was 16.5.

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Deacon. The of the Christian diaconate may germ be seen in the choosing of the Seven (Acts vi.), whose primary function was "to serve tables"; but its definite and permanent shape comes from the Greek churches founded by St Paul. The ministers of these formed two distinct classes, "those who rule" and "those who serve," with the designations ἐπίσκοποι and διάκονοι ; and St Paul enumerates their qualifications in 1 Tim. iii. 8-13, &c. With the development of the episcopate (in the later sense), the deacons became the immediate ministers of the bishop for disciplinary purposes; and their primary function was extended to include supervising church property, visiting the sick, distributing alms, &c. By degrees these became subsidiary to another function, that of ministering in the church, especially in Baptism and the Eucharist, and later on that of teaching too. And thus the duties of the deacon came to be summed up as follows in the Roman Pontifical: diaconus oportet ministrare ad altare, baptizare et prædicare. (In the English Ordinal both functions, ministering in temporal matters and ministering in the congregation, are kept in view.) But the fundamental character of his office remained on the one hand he was sharply distinguished, as being in "holy orders" like the bishop and presbyter, from the various lower orders in the ancient Church; on the other hand, he "ministered" to those of higher degree. And although in their absence fresh functions devolved upon him (varying with times and regions), he could never perform strictly "sacerdotal" functions, such as consecrating the Eucharist. The office frequently led in ancient days to the higher orders; but it was frequently held for life, and in great cities, where the number of deacons was long restricted to seven, it became one of high honour and emolument. In modern days both tendencies are represented in the West the office is usually a stepping-stone to the priesthood, whereas in the East it is often held for life, and some high offices are reserved to deacons. The ancient canonical age for the diaconate was twenty-five; it is now twenty-three. the Lutheran Churches the Diakonat is merely a title of certain assistant clergy, not a separate order; in most other non-Episcopal Churches it is practically a lay office.

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there was a true diaconate of women in the churches founded by St Paul. Bishop Lightfoot held that Phoebe, diákovos of the church at Cenchreæ (Rom. xvi. 1), "is as much a deacon as Stephen or Philip is a deacon"; and even if the word be used loosely here, it is clear that 1 Tim. iii. 11 means "Women (-deacons) in like manner," &c. (6) Nor must they be confused with the "widows" of the ancient Church, to whom certain functions were sometimes intrusted; they were ordained (excepting apparently for a time in Egypt) and had a definite position "about the altar," i.e., in the ranks of the clergy. Their work was to visit and instruct the women, to have charge of them during service, and to anoint women and children for baptism; sometimes also to cleanse the sanctuary and even administer the chalice to women. At first they ranked with, but below, the men-deacons; in course of time, however, the former rose in the scale and the latter fell, ranking below the sub-deacons; and indeed the author of the TESTAMENTUM DOMINI (q.v.) places over them an entirely new officer, the "canonical widow," "presbytera," or "vidua habens præcedentiam sedendo," of whom there are only faint traces elsewhere. Although the order appears to have existed from the first in the East, where women were much secluded (the two ministro tortured by Pliny, Ep. xcvi, may well have been deaconesses), it only spread elsewhere by degrees. It is not mentioned in Egypt till well on in the 3rd century, and does not appear in the West till about 400 A.D.,-first in Gaul and then in Italy. Even then it does not seem to have been a thriving institution. Some deaconesses are known to us of a strictly ministerial kind, but more frequently they are of a monastic or quasimonastic character; and the institution died away by about the 11th century. In the East they throve better: they are well known to us in the writings of St Chrysostom and other fathers, synods made regulations respecting them, and their position before the law is clearly laid down in the Civil Law. Nevertheless, here also they passed away by degrees; first the office came to be held by the heads of communities of women, then the name came to be given to abbesses in general, and by about the 13th century deaconesses were practically extinct. Several mediæval and Protestant sects, however, possessed a ministry of deaconesses, amongst whom may be mentioned the Cathari, Mennonites, United Brethren, and the early Independents. Moreover, the enlarged scope of women's work at the present day has led to the foundation of "deaconess institutions" of an entirely new kind. Such an institution was inaugurated at Kaiserwerth in 1833 by the Lutheran Dr Fleidner; others of the same kind followed, both abroad and in England (e.g., at Tottenham and Mildmay Park); and they are now to be found in most parts of Europe. The members of these institutions, however, do not really represent the deaconesses of early days: they are not ministers of their churches in any real sense, but rather members of voluntary societies for common work. In fact they are Protestant sisters of charity rather than deaconesses. In recent days, however, there has been a movement in the churches of the Anglican communion for the revival of the order of deaconess on ancient lines. In 1861 Bishop Tait of London set apart Miss E. Ferard as a deaconess by laying on of hands, and she became the first head of the London Deaconess Institution. Similar institutions have since been founded at home and abroad, some on a "regular" and some on a "secular" basis; i.e., in some cases the members are professed sisters, in others not. By degrees, too, they have received further recognition. In 1871 a body of "Principles and Rules for deaconesses received the signature of the two English archbishops and eighteen bishops; in 1891 eight "Resolutions" on the subject were passed in the Convocation

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Dead Sea, a lake in Palestine, so called from the absence of animal life in its waters. It lies nearly north and south, in the deepest part of the Jordan-Araba depression. It has no outlet, and its surface is from 1289 to 1300 feet below that of the Mediterranean. At its northern end is the broad valley down which the Jordan flows; and beyond the marshy plain at its other extremity, the floor of the Araba rises southward to the watershed between the Dead and Red Seas (65 miles from the Dead and 461 miles from the Red Sea; altitude 660 feet). From the eastern shore the ground rises abruptly in terraces to the Moabite plateau (3100 feet); and from the western with almost equal abruptness to the hill country of Judah (3300 feet). The slopes on either side are deeply seamed by watercourses, through which winter torrents and, in some cases, perennial streams flow to the lake. The Dead Sea is about 47 miles long, and its greatest width is 91 miles; its area is about 340 square miles. It is divided into two unequal parts by a peninsula, el-Lisán, which breaks off on the west in a cliff about 300 feet high, and is connected with the Moabite shore by a narrow strip of marshy land. The peninsula is composed of white calcareous marl with beds of salt and gypsum, and, like Jebel Usdum, which it resembles in character and composition, it formed part of the bed of the lake when its waters stood at a higher level. North of the peninsula the lake has a maximum depth of 1278 feet. South of

it the depth is only 3 to 12 feet, and some years ago it was fordable opposite el-Lisán. The marshy plain, es-Sebkha, at the south end is liable to inundation, and strewn with driftwood encrusted with salt; it extends southwards to a terrace 500 feet high, which marks the commencement of the 'Araba. At the south-west end of the lake is Jebel or Khashm Usdum, about 600 feet high, and 7 miles long, of which the lower part is formed of solid rock-salt. The principal affluents, including winter torrents, are, on the north, the Jordan and Ain esSúeimeh; on the east, Wadies Ghuweir, Zerka Ma'ín, in which lie the hot sulphur springs of Callirrhöe, Mójib (Arnon), ed-Derá a or el-Kerak, en-N'meirah, and el-Hesi or es-Sáfieh, which passes to the lake through the reed-thickets of es-Sebkha; on the south, Wadies et-Tafileh, el-Jeib, and el-Fikreh; and on the west, Wadies Muhauwát and Seyál, 'Ain Jidi, W. el-Merabba or ed-Derajeh, 'Ain Ghuweir, W. en-Nár, and 'Ain Feshkha. It is estimated that these affluents pour more than six million tons of water into the Dead Sea daily, all of which passes off by evaporation.

The surface level of the lake varies with the season. In March 1865 it was 1292 feet below sea-level (Wilson): it is highest in February or March. The boiling-point of the water is 221° F. The density increases from north to south, and with the depth-rapidly to a certain point, after which it is more uniform. Its density at 300 mètres is 1-253, average 1.166. The solid matter at a depth of

300 m. is 27.8 per cent. of the weight, and consists of chlorides of calcium, magnesia, sodium, and potassium, and in smaller proportions of bromides and sulphates of the same substances. The richness in bromine is held to

indicate greatly prolonged concentration. Eggs float in the water. Curative properties were attributed to it in Roman times; and according to Mukaddasi, A.D. 985, people assembled to drink it on a feast day in August. A bath in the lake is wholesome and refreshing. The oily sensation after bathing is due to the chloride of calcium; and the noisome, acrid taste to the chloride of magnesia. The chloride and bromide of magnesia are fatal to all animal life excepting certain microbes found in the mud by Ehrenberg and Lortet. Fish carried down by the Jordan, and small fish from brackish pools and streams near the shore, die at once in the water of the lake. The water strongly affects the eyes, and evaporation leaves a thick deposit of salt. The water is limpid and transparent, and under varying conditions is deep blue or green in colour. Its surface, far from being motionless, as some writers have supposed, is constantly rippled by breezes, or raised into waves by the strong northerly winds, and is sometimes veiled by light bluish clouds or haze produced by the evaporation. Molyneux, in 1847, and others since that date, have noticed a streak of white foam which sometimes stretches from the north-west end of the lake towards el-Lisán, following nearly the axis of the lake. From this Blanckenhorn concludes that there is a sub-lacustrine fissure which he considers to be thermal and asphaltic; but the phenomenon is possibly due to the current of the Jordan, which does not expend its force completely until it reaches el-Lisán. A recent traveller, Rev. P. Cady, writes of a strong current setting towards the north along the east coast; of oil floating on the water near the mouth of the Zerka Maîn; and of disturbances of level that appear, like those to which the Lake of Geneva is subject, to be due to differences of barometric pressure at different points on the lake. The origin of these and other phenomena can only be ascertained by a thorough scientific examination of the lake and its basin. The shores are sterile and desolate from the absence of fresh water, and from the smallness of the rainfall, and not, as formerly supposed, from the poisonous nature of the air. The springs near the lake give life to thickets of willow, tamarisk, and acacia, which are frequented by birds; and wherever, as at Engedi, there is running water the vegetation is almost tropical in its luxuriance. plain of Jericho is very fertile, and south of the lake the Arabs raise crops of wheat, dura, cotton, and tobacco. The climate in summer and autumn is very hot and unhealthy; but in winter it is good, with hot days and cool nights. The unhealthiness is due partly to the intense heat, and partly to the miasma from the swamps and lagoons at the southern end. The scenery is remarkable for the brilliancy of the colouring, and the varying effects of light and shade. The abrupt slopes on either side, the deep ravines on the eastern shore, and the intense colouring of the water combine to form a scene of grandeur and beauty which has been compared, not inaptly, with the aspect of some portions of the Lake of Geneva. Boats were employed on the lake in Roman, and possibly in much earlier, times (Tacitus, Hist. v. 6; Josephus, Ant. ix. 1, § 2; B. J. iv. 7, § 6); they are represented on it in the mosaic map at Medeba; and under the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem the navigation dues formed part of the revenue of the Lords of Kerak. The use of boats died out when the Turks abandoned the country east of the Jordan to the Bedawin. During the 19th century boats have occasionally been used for exploration, and since the occupation of Moab and Edom

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by the Turks an attempt has been made to place small steamers on the lake.

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Name.-In the Old Testament the Dead Sea is called "the sea," the "salt sea," the "sea of the Arabah," and "the eastern sea. The name "Dead Sea" appears in the Vulgate (Jos. iii. 16), and is used by Pausanias, Galen, Justin, and Eusebius. Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, and Josephus call it the " Asphaltic Lake," and others the "Sodomitish sea.' It is now known to the Arabs as Bahr Lút, "the sea of Lot,"

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Geology. The Jordan-Araba depression, in which the Dead Sea lies, was produced by subsidence along a line of faults or fractures during the terrestrial movements that accompanied the gradual elevation of the region out of the sea after the close of the Eocene period. As a result of the faulting, the formations on the opposite sides of the lake do not correspond. Whilst the hills on the western side are formed entirely of Cretaceous limestones, the abrupt face of the Moabite plateau is composed of a base of ancient volcanic rocks, upon which rest, in ascending order, red sandstones and conglomerates of the Carboniferous age, Carboniferous limestone, variegated sandstones (Nubian sandstone) of Lower Cretaceous age, and Cretaceous limestones. The deeply cut ravines of the Moabite plateau owe their origin to the same subsidence, but their features, and those of the hills east and west of the lake, were greatly modified by the heavy rainfall in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods. Terraces of lacustrine deposits at different levels indicate that in Pleistocene times the Jordan valley was occupied by a lake 200 miles long, which had the same surface level as the Mediterranean; and that the water gradually subsided until, long before the dawn of history, the evaporation equalled the supply, and the lake assumed approximately its present level. The surface is liable to frequent fluctuations of level, which, though confined to narrow vertical limits, are sufficient to alter considerably the form and superficial extent of the lake. Such fluctuations are due to a succession of exceptionally dry or rainy seasons, to the greater or lesser activity of subaqueous springs, to landslips, to changes in the drainage, to the gradual silting up of the basin, and, possibly, to slight earth movements which escape detection. The annual rise and fall is estimated at from 6 to 10 feet, but there seems to be also prolonged periods of high and low level. The lines of driftwood and the marks on the rocks show the limits of rise which might occur under existing conditions, and a fall of 15 feet is quite possible after exceptional periods of dryness. Such a fall would dry up almost the whole of the lagoon south of el-Lisán, and effect great changes in the appearance of the lake. During the forty years 1860-1900 there was a gradual rise in the level of the surface, apparently coinciding in part with a succession of wet seasons, but accurate observations are wanting. A small island near the north end of the lake, which in 1858 was from 10 to 12 feet above the surface, and connected with the shore by a causeway, has been entirely submerged since 1892; and the track between Jebel Usdum and the lake has for several years been covered with water. Monthly measurements of the rise and fall of the lake, taken for the Palestine Exploration Fund during an exceptionally dry year, October 1900 to October 1901, showed a rise of 1 foot 3 inches up to 30th March 1901, and then a fall of 1 foot 9 inches to October. Thus the level of the

lake was lowered 6 inches during the year. The asphalt or bitumen, so highly prized in ancient times, is supposed to be derived from subaqueous strata of bituminous limestone or marl, and to collect at the bottom of the lake until it is loosened by an earthquake and rises to the surface. The Arabs collect the bitumen which reaches the shore, and the salt of Jebel Usdum and of the Dead Sea has been carried to Jerusalem from the earliest times. But no systematic attempt has been made yet to turn the mineral wealth of the Dead Sea and its basin to account.

The following analysis of water taken from the north end of the lake, not near the Jordan, in March 1885, when the level was high, was made by Dr Bernays: :

Sp. gr. 1.1528 at 15.5 C.

Calcium carbonate
Calcium sulphate
Magnesium nitrate
Potassium chloride
Sodium chloride
Calcium chloride
Magnesium chloride.
Magnesium bromide.
Iron and aluminium oxides

Organic matter, water of crystallization and loss

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This is not the place to discuss the theories respecting the destruction of the Cities of the Plain (Gen. xix.). The catastrophe was in no way connected with the formation of the Dead Sea. Some authorities place the cities at the south end of the lake; but it is clear from the statements in the Bible that they were situated in the Jordan valley to the north of the lake.

AUTHORITIES.-DUC DE LUYNES._Voyage d'Exploration à la Mer
Morte, tome 3, Géologie par LOUIS LARTET, Paris, 1875.-FRAAS.
Aus dem Orient.-WILSON, in Ordnance Survey_of Jerusalem,
Notes (for levels), and in P. E. F. Qy. Stat., 1900.-HULL. Memoir
on the Geology and Geography of Arabia, Petræa, Palestine, &c., P.
E. Fund, 1889; Mount Seir, 1889.-G. A. SMITH. Historical
Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.-LORTET, in Zeitschrift des
Deutschen Palästina Vereins, xvii. 142.-BLANCKENHORN, in
Z.D.P.V. xix. 157.-GAUTIER, Autour de la Mer Morte, 1901.-DE
LAPPARENT. Etude Géologique sur la Mer Morte in Revue Biblique,
vol. v. (1896).-GRAY HILL and Putnam Cady in P. E. F. Qy.
Stats., 1900, 1901.
(c. w. w.)

Deadwood, capital of Lawrence county, South Dakota, U.S.A., in the northern part of the Black Hills, in 44° 23′ N. lat. and 103° 44′ W. long., in the cañon of Whitewood Creek, at an altitude of 4532 feet. Its site is hilly, and its street plan irregular. It has two railways, the Burlington and Missouri River, and the Fremont, Elkhorn, and Missouri Valley. It is the commercial and mining centre of the Black Hills. About it are several gold mines, characterized by the low grade of their ores, which range from $3 to $4 per ton, by their vast quantity and by the ease of mining and of extracting the metal. The ore contains free gold, which is extracted by the simple process of stamping and amalgamation. Several hundred tons of ore are treated thus in Deadwood and its environs daily, and its stamp mills are exceeded in size only by those of the Treadwell Mine in south-eastern Alaska. The annual gold product of this region is about $4,000,000. Population (1880), 3777; (1890), 2366; (1900), 3498, of whom 707 were foreign-born.

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Deal, a municipal borough and bathing resort in the St Augustine's parliamentary division (since 1885) of Kent, England, 8 miles north-east by north of Dover by rail. The asphalted promenade is now nearly 4 miles long; the pier has been provided with a pavilion and enlarged. There are well-known golf links. Area, 1124 acres. Population (1881), 8500; (1901), 10,427. There is a parish of Deal. De Amicis, Edmondo (1846-writer, was born at Oneglia 21st October 1846. After some schooling at Cuneo and Turin, he was sent to the Military School at Modena, from which he was appointed to a lieutenancy in the 3rd Regiment of the line in 1865. fought at the battle of Custozza in 1866. In 1867 he became Director of the Italia Militare, Florence. In the following year he published his first book, La Vita Militare, which consisted of sketches of military life, and attained wide popularity. After the overthrow of the Pope's temporal power in 1870, De Amicis retired from the army and devoted himself to literature, making his head quarters at Turin. Always a traveller by inclination, he found opportunity for this in his new leisure, and some of his most popular books have been the product of his wanderings. Several of these have been translated into English and the other principal languages of Europe. The most important of these are his descriptions of Spain (1873), Holland (1874), Constantinople (1877), and Morocco (1879). These have gained him reputation as a brilliant depicter of scenery and the external aspects of life; solid information is not within their sphere; and much of their success is owing to the opportunities they afford for spirited illustration. Of late years De Amicis has greatly extended his fame as a novelist, especially by Il Romanzo d'un Maestro (1890). His poems consist principally of sonnets.

was of Belgian extraction, but his family had long been settled in Germany. He was born, January 26, 1831, at Frankfort-on-Main. From 1849 to 1853 he studied medicine at Heidelberg, Marburg, and Berlin. In 1853 he settled at Frankfort as a surgeon. In 1854 he became privat-docent for botany in Tübingen, and afterwards Professor of Botany at Freiberg (1859). In 1867 he migrated to Halle, and in 1872 to Strassburg, where he was the first rector of the newly constituted university. He died there January 19, 1888. In his earlier years he came under the influence of Mohl, Fresenius, A. Braun, Ehrenberg, and Johannes Müller, but his startling originality and ability soon brought him into prominence, and he became one of Germany's most distinguished biologists, remarkable for his broad and firm grip of the botanical problems of his day, and for the clear insight he brought to bear on investigations.

Although one of his largest and most important works was on the Comparative Anatomy of Ferns and Phanerogams, in which he produced an account of the tissues of vascular plants which has never been entirely superseded, his treatment of the epidermal system being especially good, and notwithstanding his admirable acquaintance with systematic and field botany generally, De Bary will always be remembered as the founder of modern Mycology. This branch of botany he completely revolutionized in 1866 by the publication of his celebrated Morphologie und Physiologie d. Pilze, &c., a classic which he rewrote in 1884, and which has had a world-wide influence on Biology. His clear appreciation of the real significance of Symbiosis and the dual nature of Lichens stands out as one of his masterpieces, and in many ways he showed powers of generalizing in regard to the evolution of organisms which would alone have made him a distinguished man. It was as an investigator of the then mysterious Fungi, however, that De Bary stands out first and foremost among the biologists of the 19th century. He not only laid bare the complex facts of the life-history of many forms,

e.g., the Ustilagineæ, Peronosporeæ, Uredineæ, and many Ascomycetes,-treating them from the developmental point of view, in opposition to the then prevailing anatomical method of the Tulasnes, but he insisted on the necessity of tracing the evolution of each organism from spore to spore, and by his methods of culture and accurate observation brought to light numerous facts hitherto undreamt of. These his keen perception and insight continually employed as the basis for hypotheses, which he in turn tested with an experimental skill and critical faculty rarely equalled and probably never surpassed. One of his most fruitful discoveries was the true meaning of infection as a morphological and physiological process. He traced this step by step in Phytophthora, Cystopus, Puccinia, and other Fungi, and so placed before the world in a clear light the significance of parasitism. He then showed by numerous examples wherein lay the essential differences between a parasite and a saprophyte, a theme by no means clear in 1860-70, but which he himself had recognized as early as 1853, as is shown by his work, Die Brandpilze.

These researches led to the explanation of epidemic diseases, and De Bary's contributions to this subject were fundamental, as witness his classical work on the Potato Disease in 1861. They also led to his striking discovery of heterocism (or metacism) in the Uredineæ, the truth of which he demonstrated in Wheat Rust experimentally, and so clearly that his classical example (1863) has never been other than confirmed by subsequent observers, though we now know much more as to details. It is difficult to estimate the relative importance of De Bary's astoundingly accurate work on the sexuality of the Fungi. He not De Bary, Anton (1831-1888), German botanist, only described the phenomena of sexuality in Peronosporea

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