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year 1,061,868,376 b of dressed beef, 505,834,067 b of lard, 203,454 barrels of pork, and 863,363,437 b of other hog products. The receipts of sheep were 3,682,832. The Union stock-yards include 475 acres of land, of which 320 acres are floored with planks or brick. Within the yards are 13,000 pens, 8500 of which are covered, for housing hogs and sheep. These covered pens occupy 75 acres. There are also within the yards 25 miles of streets, 38 miles of water troughs, 90 miles of water pipes, and 50 miles of sewerage. The receipts of grain and of flour in the grain equivalent were 320,670,440 bushels, and the shipments were 246,369,099 bushels. The port of Chicago showed 8048 arrivals, with a tonnage of 6,281,355, and 8126 clearances, with a tonnage of 6,317,884. The duties collected on imported goods at the Chicago customhouse amounted to $7,551,400. The greater part of these imports came by rail in bond. The bank clearings were $6,612,311,611, as against $60,761,791,901 for New York, $7,086,285,271 for Boston, and $4,811,079,611 for Philadelphia. The gross receipts of the post office for the fiscal year ending 30th June 1899 were $6,131,123, as against $8,881,547 for New York, $3,143,929 for Philadelphia, and $2,920,383 for Boston.

Government.-The constitution of the state of Illinois forbids the legislature to grant special charters for municipal corporations, and requires that all such incorporations shall be in accordance with a general law. The government of Chicago, therefore, is framed by the statute which provides for all cities in the state alike. The city is divided into thirty-five wards. Each of these elects two members of the city council, one being chosen each year for a term of two years. Thus the council is a continuous body, one half of its seventy members being renewed annually. The powers of the council are very extensive, including the granting of franchises for the supplying of light and locomotion. The supreme executive officer is a mayor, elected by the qualified voters of the city for two years. Legislation requires his assent to be valid, unless a two-thirds vote of the council adopts the measure notwithstanding his veto. The mayor has large power of appointment and removal of officers, and it is his duty to enforce the laws. The administrative departments are organized in general on the plan of a single head for each, appointed by the mayor with the approval of the council, the subordinates being appointed by the head with the approval of the mayor. These departments are those of finance, law, public works, fire, police, health, and buildings. The department of education and the public library are administered by boards, whose members are appointed by the mayor with the approval of the council. The courts of law are courts of the state of Illinois, but a certain number of justices of the peace are designated by the mayor to act as police magistrates. Local Works.-The water supply is derived from Lake Michigan, there being a series of pumping stations from one mile to five miles from the shore. The system belongs to the city, and is maintained and operated by the department of public works. The main drainage of the city has been into the lake. In order to preserve the lake water from pollution a drainage canal has been constructed from the south branch of the Chicago river to the Desplaines river, a total distance (including the improved portion of the river) of 34 miles. By this means the water flows from the lake into the Desplaines, and thence by way of the Illinois river into the Mississippi. The water was turned into the channel on 2nd January 1900. The present flow is limited to 360,000 cubic feet per minute, but the canal is designed to have a maximum capacity of 600,000 cubic feet per minute. The entire cost (1st January 1900) was $34,000,000. The cost is defrayed

from taxes paid by the owners of property in the sanitary district, which includes the greater part of the city and certain suburban areas, a total of 185 square miles. The work is in the hands of a board of trustees elected by the people of the district.

Parks.-An extensive system of parks and connecting drives girdles the city from the shore of the lake on the north to the shore on the south. There are three distinct divisions of the system, known as the north, west, and south parks, each being managed by a board of trustees. The trustees of the north parks and those of the west parks are appointed by the governor of Illinois, while the south park trustees are appointed by the judges within Cook county. There are also several minor parks, which are controlled by the city government. The entire park area comprises 2232-1 acres- -323-7 on the north side, 627.3 on the west side, and 1281-1 on the south side. Lincoln Park on the north side, and Jackson Park on the south side, are on the lake shore. The parks contain some interesting monuments-especially noteworthy being the bronze statue of Lincoln, the equestrian statue of Grant, and the memorials of Lassalle, Schiller, and Linnæus in Lincoln Park, and the equestrian statue of Logan in Lake Front Park. The monument dedicated to the Ottawa Indians, in Lincoln Park, and that commemorating the Indian massacre of 1812, are also of interest. Oakwoods cemetery is a monument to the memory of the Union soldiers of the Civil War, and also one to the memory of the Confederate soldiers who died while prisoners in Camp Douglas in the suburbs of Chicago between 1861 and 1865.

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In the

Finance. The total receipts of the city for the fiscal year 1900 were $34,962,473. They were derived from taxation on real estate and on personal property, and from various other sources. The main items of the receipts, in addition to $2,956,734 cash on hand at beginning of the year, were-property tax, $14,295,829; liquor licenses, $3,174,003; other licenses, $538,092; special assessments, $3,246,124; water-works, $3,292,759'; loans, $5,138,000.

The total expenditures for the year were $28,733,848, of which the expenditures for construction and other capital outlay amounted to $9,215,772, and those for maintenance and operation to $19,518,076. The main items of the former class of expenditures were-schools, $608,109; streets, $898,699; and loans repaid, $6,060,511. The main items of the latter class were-police department, $3,773,423; fire department, $1,617,225; schools, $6,200,433; parks and gardens, $643,089; street cleaning and sprinkling, $588,662; water-works, $1,240,001; and interest on debt, $1,313,916. The assessed valuation of real property in 1900, on a basis of about 20 per cent. of the full value, was $202,884,012; of personal property, on the same basis, $73,681,868. The general tax-rate was $74-87 per $1000. The net debt was $32,989,819.

By an anomaly in the laws, the rural towns over which the city has extended retain their political structure and some of their functions. It is also true that the dual system of city and county government-the city area paying nine-tenths of the city taxes-is clumsy and burdensome. The rapid growth of the city makes it necessary to provide public improvements on a large scale, and under the laws of the state the income heretofore has been insufficient to cover necessary expenses. How to provide an adequate income without an excessive burden on taxpayers, and without incurring a crushing debt, is one of the grave problems of the near future.

The World's Fair, 1893.-The four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America was commemorated

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CHICAGO,

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by a World's Fair at Chicago (see article EXHIBITIONS). | board $200,000 towards the permanent building on the The site was at Jackson Park, on the lake shore, and lake front, used during the fair as a place of meeting for included 666 acres. On 21st October 1892 (corresponding the various congresses. to 12th October, o.s.), the date of the discovery, occurred the formal dedication of the grounds. The fair was opened on 1st May 1893, and was continued until 15th November. The buildings, planned by a commission of architects, formed a collection of rare beauty, while the grounds,

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Municipal Reform.-In the spring of 1893 the Civic Federation was organized by a number of public-spirited citizens, and through that agency, as well as by other means, much has been accomplished in the direction of giving Chicago better government and better civic conditions. In 1895 the state adopted

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intersected by lagoons and bordered by the waters of the lake, gave an appropriate setting. The principal nations of the world, and nearly all the states of the Union, had appropriate buildings, and the exhibits were on an extensive scale. A notable feature was the series of congresses on important subjects, of which the parliament of religions was perhaps the most successful. The total number of paid admissions was 27,529,401. Two permanent results of the fair remain in Chicago. The Field Columbian Museum found the nucleus of its great collection in many exhibits which were presented to it. The Chicago Art Institute was given by the World's Fair

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a municipal civil service law, which
might be put in force by any city
on affirmative vote of the people. It
was ratified in Chicago by a majority
of over 50,000. Later an improved
revenue law and a law for the protec-
tion of primary elections have been
enacted. All these measures were
secured by the efforts of Chicago
reformers. In 1896 the Municipal
Voters' League was organized. This
body has devoted itself to securing a
better common council. The league
examines and publishes the record
of each candidate, no matter by
what party nominated, and recom-
mends election or defeat, as the case
may be.
As a result the council
has been largely redeemed from the
corrupt element which at one time
controlled it.

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Chicago. 3 vols.-BLANCHARD. History
of Chicago and the North-West.-BROSS.
History of Chicago.-LAND. Chicago: Her
Trade and Commerce.-MOSES and KIRK-
LAND. History of Chicago. 2 vols.
SHEAHAN and UPTON. Chicago: Laws
and Ordinances of Chicago; Industrial
Chicago. 1891-96. 6 vols. SPARLING.
-School
Municipal History of Chicago.
Census Reports; Forty-third Annual State-
ment of the Finances of City of Chicago,
from 1st January 1899 to 31st December
1899.-The Lakeside City Directory, 1899.
-Forty-second Annual Report of the Trade
and Commerce of Chicago (to the Board of
Trade) for the year ending 31st Decem-
ber 1899.-Reports of the City Depart-
ments and of the various Institutions.
Report of the Committee of the Common
Council on Street Railways.

(H. P. J.)

ones

Chicago, University of, situated at Chicago, Ill., U.S.A., was founded by John D. Rockefeller, and opened its doors in October 1892. In 1899-1900 it had 223 teachers and 3183 students. It occupies eight blocks in the city of Chicago, upon which seventeen stone buildings have been erected; seven additional are now being built. The library contains 305,000 volumes. The value of grounds, buildings, and equipment is nearly $4,000,000, and the invested funds approximate $6,500,000. The only professional school is in divinity, but fully one-third of the students are engaged in graduate work in arts, literature, and science. The university extension division is important, and the university press publishes twelve scientific periodicals. By a system of affiliation close relationship is sustained with a number of Students of both sexes colleges and secondary schools. are admitted on equal terms. The Yerkes observatory of

Chicago Heights, a village of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., a few miles S. of Chicago, of which it is a suburb. Population (1900), 5100, of whom 1530 were foreign-born and 47 were negroes.

the university, which contains the largest telescope in | 12,000 to 15,000. The place is growing fast, and a the world, is situated on Lake Geneva in Wisconsin, 60 considerable population, probably over 100,000 in number, miles from Chicago. (W. R. H.) inhabits the plain in the neighbourhood of the capital. Situated as it is, midway between Moulmein and Yunnan and between the valley of the Menam and the northern Shan states, it has long been of commercial importance; while as the centre of the principal teak forests of Siam it has since 1880 attracted a considerable number of British, Shân, and Burmese foresters. By the treaty of 3rd September 1883 between Siam and Great Britain a British consul resides at Chieng Mai, and an International Court has been constituted, with civil and criminal jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties. Surveys have been made for railways from both Bangkok (500 miles) and Moulmein (230 miles). The total value of the annual import and export trade with Burma, China, and Bangkok of the consular district of Chieng Mai, is approximately £1,000,000 sterling, excluding teak. The output of teak will probably be somewhat restricted by the conservancy regulations enforced by the Siamese Forest Department.

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Chichester, an ancient Roman city and municipal borough in the Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, about 14 miles N.E. of Portsmouth by rail. In 1897 a tramway to Selsey Beach was completed, and the town was thoroughly drained in 1894 at a cost of £33,000. The restoration of the cathedral, which was commenced in 1830, is still in progress, the cloisters being the portions most recently restored (1890-91). The city and borough has been twice extended, and in 1901 had an area of 1595 acres. Population (1881), 8149; (1901), 12,241

Chickamauga Creek, a small branch of Tennessee river, joining it about 6 miles above Chattanooga. It gave the name to a desperate battle during the Civil War, fought on 19th and 20th September 1863, between the Federal forces under Rosecrans and the Confederates under Bragg; and after terrible fighting Rosecrans was repulsed. The Union loss was reported at 16,000, that of the Confederates 18,000. The site of this battle has been converted into a national park by the general Government.

Chicopee, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated in 42° 10' N. lat. and 72° 31' W. long., on Connecticut river, which is here not navigable, and on the Boston and Maine railway, 6 miles N. of Springfield. It was chartered as a city in 1890, with an area of 26 square miles of level surface, in which there are the three villages of Chicopee Center, Chicopee Falls, and Willimansett. It has fine water-power in Chicopee river, which joins the Connecticut within the city limits, and has extensive cotton mills and factories for iron and steel goods, especially for bicycles, arms, cutlery, and agricultural tools. Population (1880), 11,286; (1890), 14,050; (1900), 19,167, of whom 8139 were foreign

born and 10 were negroes.

Chidambaram, or CHELUMBRUM, a town of British India, in the South Arcot district of Madras, 7 miles from the coast and 151 miles S. of Madras by rail. The population in 1881 was 19,837, and in 1891 it was 18,634; the municipal income in 1897-98 was Rs.23,690. Its temples are among the most famous in Southern India, and attract 60,000 pilgrims every December. The great temple has a court of 1000 pillars, each a solid block of granite, and its roof is covered with copper and gold. There are a high school and three printing-presses.

Chieng Mai (Burm. Zimmé), the capital of the Lao state of the same name and the residence of a Siamese high commissioner appointed from Bangkok. This official has jurisdiction over the neighbouring less important states of Lampun, Lakawn-Lampang, Pre, and Nan, each of which, like Chieng Mai itself, retains its hereditary chief, or chao muang, and other hereditary officers. The town, surrounded by the remains of long ineffectual fortifications, is situated on the right bank of the river Meping, one of the chief branches of the Menam, in E. long. 99° 0' and N. lat. 18° 46', in a plain about 800 feet above sea-level, and surrounded by densely forested hill ranges. The population of the town consists chiefly of Lao, with a number of Chinese, Siamese, Shâns, and Ka hillmen, and about fifty Europeans, and numbers from

Chihuahua, a state of Mexico, bounded on the N. by the United States, on the W. by Sonora, on the E. by Coahuila, and on the S. by Sonora, Sinaloa, and Durango. It has an area of 87,820 square miles. The population in 1879 was 225,541, and in 1895 it was 262,771, or 30 per square mile. It is divided politically into eighteen departments. Mining and stock-raising are the principal industries, though the agricultural interests are also considerable. The state contains some 200 towns and

It is estimated that

villages. The exports are principally gold and silver, lead,
copper, cattle, sheep, and hides.
$90,000,000 (gold) represents the American capital in-
vested in mining. The value of the agricultural products
in 1896 was $2,381,565. The capital, CHIHUAHUA, had
a population in 1895 of 18,279, and an estimated one in
1898 of 24,000. It is on the Mexican Central railway,
226 miles south of El Paso (Texas) and 6400 feet above
sea-level. It is lighted by electricity, has tramways and
good sewerage. The principal public buildings are the
cathedral, the state palace, and the Hospital Porfirio Diaz.
Other important towns are Parral (7269), Ciudad Juarez
(6917), and Jimenez (5381).

Chilas, an insignificant hill village, dominated by a fort, on the left bank of the Indus, about 50 miles below Bunji. It is situated in 35° 27' N. lat. and 34° 8' E. long., 4100 feet above sea-level. It was occupied by a British force early in 1893, when a determined attack was made on the place by the Kohistanis from the Indus valley districts to the south-west, aided by contingents from Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. Its importance consists in its position with reference to the Kashmir-Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected with Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its command of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit from the Punjab frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil pass. By the Kashmir route Gilgit is 400 miles from the rail-head at Rawal Pindi. By the Khagán route it would be brought 100 miles nearer, but the unsettled condition of the country through which the road passes is at present a bar to its general use.

Child, Francis James (1825-1896), American scholar and educationalist, was born in Boston, 1st February 1825. He graduated at Harvard University in 1846, taking the highest rank in his class in all subjects; at once became tutor in mathematics (1846-48); and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political economy, and English, serving in that capacity for one

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Ministry of 1886. When the first Home Rule Bill was introduced he demurred privately to its financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of resignation. He retired from Parliament in 1892, and died on 29th January 1896, his last piece of work being the drafting of a report for the Royal Commission on Irish Financial Relations, of which he was chairman. Childers was a capable and industrious administrator of the old Liberal school, and he did his best, in the political conditions then prevailing, to improve the naval and military administration while he was at the Admiralty and War Office. His own bent was towards finance, but no striking reform will be associated with his name. His most ambitious effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of Consols in 1884, but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the subsequent conversion by Mr Goschen in 1888. The Life of Mr Childers, published by Murray in 1901, throws some interesting side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian Cabinet.

year. After two years of study in Europe, in 1851 he | South Edinburgh, and was Home Secretary in the succeeded Edward T. Channing, who had helped to shape the style of so many Harvard authors during his occupancy of the chair of the Boylston professorship of rhetoric and oratory. He studied the English drama (having edited Four Old Plays in 1848) and Germanic philology, the latter at Berlin and Göttingen during a leave of absence, 1849-51; and took general editorial supervision of a large collection of the British poets, published in Boston in 1853 and following years. Spenser was newly and thoroughly edited, with life and notes, by him. At one time he planned an edition of Chaucer in the same series, but contented himself with a treatise, in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for 1863, entitled Observations on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, which did much to establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation, and scansion as now generally understood. His largest undertaking, however, grew out of an original collection, in his British Poets series, of English and Scottish Ballads, selected and edited by himself, in eight volumes (Boston, 1857-59). Thenceforward the leisure of his life-much increased by his transfer, in 1876, to the professorship of English-was devoted to the comparative study of British vernacular ballads. He accumulated, in the university library, one of the largest folk-lore collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than printed sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative hearing to popular versions still surviving. At length his final collection was put to press, as The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, at first issued in parts (1882-98), and then gathered into five folio volumes, which remain the authoritative treasury of their subject. Professor Child worked-and overworked to the last, dying in Boston, 11th September 1896, having completed his task save for a general introduction and bibliography. A full and sympathetic biography was prefixed to the work by his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.

Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley (18271896), British statesman, was born in London on 25th June 1827. On leaving Cambridge he went out to Australia (1850), and became a member of the Government of Victoria, but in 1857 returned to England as Agent-General of the colony. Entering Parliament in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he continued to hold till 1885), he became Civil Lord of the Treasury in 1864, and in 1865 Financial Secretary to the Treasury. A devoted admirer of Gladstone, Childers occupied a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone Ministries. He was First Lord of the Admiralty from 1868 to 1871, and as such inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health compelled his resignation of office in 1871, but next year he returned to the Ministry as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. From 1880 to 1882 he was Secretary for War, a post he accepted somewhat unwillingly; and in that position he had to bear the responsibility for the reforms which were introduced into the War Office under the parsimonious conditions which were then part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the Egyptian war occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy; and also the Boer war, in which he and his colleagues showed to less advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter year was the occasion of the Government's fall. Defeated at the general election at Pontefract, he was returned as a Home Ruler (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for

Children, Cruelty to.-English law has always in theory given to children the same remedies as to adults for ill-usage, whether by their parents or by others, and has never recognized the patria potestas as known to earlier Roman law; and while powers of discipline and chastisement have been recognized as necessarily incident to paternal authority, the father is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done to them. The only points in which infancy created a defect in civil status were that infants were subject to the restraints on complete freedom of action involved in their being in the legal custody of the father, and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers, and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in amount and severity to the nature of the fault committed and the age and mental capacity of the child punished. But the Court of Chancery, in delegated exercise of the authority of the sovereign as parens patriæ, has always asserted the right to take from parents, and if necessary itself to assume the wardship of children where parental rights were abused or serious cruelty was inflicted; while abuse of the power of correction is regarded as giving a cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if attended by fatal results renders the parent liable to indictment for murder or manslaughter.

The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children has undoubtedly changed considerably with the relaxation of the accepted standard of severity in domestic or scholastic discipline and the growth of new ideas as to the duties of parents to children, which in their latest developments tend enormously to enlarge the parental duties without any corresponding increase of filial obligations.

Starting from the earlier conception, which limited illtreatment legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common law came to recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, bound under duty or contract to supply necessaries to a child, unable by reason of its tender years to provide for itself, wilfully neglected to supply them, and thereby caused the death of the child or injury to its health, although no actual assault had been committed. Questions have from time to time arisen as to what could be regarded as necessary within this rule; and quite apart from legislation, popular opinion has influenced courts of justice in requiring more from parents and employers than used to be required. But Parliament has also intervened to punish abandonment or exposure of infants under two years (24 and 25 Vict. c. 100, § 27), and the neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or

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